THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


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SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSITY  Of  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

ANGELES,  CALIF. 


STATE  MAINTENANCE  FOR 
TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


By 
WALTER  SCOTT  HERTZOG 


BALTIMORE 
WARWICK  &  YORK,  Inc. 

1921 


Copyright,  1921,  By 

WARWICK   &   YORK,   INC. 


\_  B 

n  \  s 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

f9 

A  study  of  this  kind  is  impossible  without  the  assistance 

•    of  many  school  officials  and  other  educators.     I  wish  to 

acknowledge  my  debt  of  gratitude  to  all  who  have  so 

courteously  cooperated  in  securing  the  data.     In  many 

instances  it  was  not  feasible  to  give  the  names  of  those 

^i     who  responded  to  my  requests  for  information.     Educa- 

**».  tional  literature  has  been  used  freely  in  compiling  the 

statements  of  conditions  in  various  states  and  countries. 

Whatever  measure  of  success  has  'been  achieved  in  this 
study  is  largely  due  to  the  personal  influence  and  inspira- 
tion of  Dr.  Wm.  C.  Bagley,  of  Teachers  College,  who 
\  was  the  pioneer  in  advocating  subsidies  for  prospective 
1*4  teachers  in  the  United  States. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 
Chapter  I — The  Prospective  Teacher  and  the  State 

Conditions  that  make  a  profession  attractive. .  .  7 

Teacher-training  as  a  state  function 8 

Methods  by  which  the  state  may  provide  trained 

teachers    13 

Purpose  of  this  study 23 

Chapter  II. — A  Survey  of  Conditions  which  May 
Justify  Additional  Aid  for  Prospective 
Teachers 

Introduction 25 

Composition  of  the  teaching  population 26 

Statistics  of  educational  development  since  1870    43 
Cost  of  training  at  Normal  Schools 55 

Chapter  III. — Plans   for  Recruiting  the  Profession 
Through  Financial  Assistance 

In  the  United  States  61 

In  Canada  69 

In  Latin- America 70 

In  Europe   72 

In  Asia    78 

In  New  Zealand,  Australia  and  South  Africa ...  79 

Chapter  IV. — Methods  of  Recruiting  other  Profes- 
sions and  Occupations  Through 
Financial  Assistance 

In  industry    83 

In  occupations  for  women  (telephone,  telegraph, 

stenography,  nursing)   83 

Army  and  Navy — West  Point  and  Annapolis ...     85 
Scholarships  for  higher  education 88 

3 


4          STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

Traveling  scholarships    90 

New  York  State  Nautical  School 90 

Church  boards  of  education  and  the  ministry.  .     91 

Chapter  V.  The  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of 
Subsidies  for  Teacher  Training  as  an 
Element  in  Recruiting  the  Profession 

Advantages    103 

Disadvantages 113 

Chapter  VI.     Conclusions 

Terms  of  a  state  subsidy  bill 127 

Bibliography  135 

Appendix  A.  Table  of  State  Situation  on  Teacher 

Training  139 

Appendix  B.  Recent  or  Pending  Legislation 141 


TABLES  AND  DIAGRAMS 

Table  I.    Preparation  of  Teachers  in  Missouri  in  Years 

Beyond  Elementary  Schools 27 

Table  II.  Preparation  of  Elementary  Teachers  of 

Montana  1919-20  31 

Table  III.  Preparation  of  High  School  Teachers  in 

Montana  1919-20  32 

Table  IV.  Prepared  Teachers  in  Public  Schools  of 

Montana  191 1  to  1920  33 

Table  V.  Average  Salaries  of  Teachers  in  Relation 

to    Training — Montana    1919-20    34 

Table         VI.    Teacher    Shortage   in     the     United     States, 

October,    1920 36 

Table  VH.  Comparison  of  the  Development  of  Normal 
Schools,  High  Schools,  Colleges  and  Uni- 
versities with  Population,  Wealth,  and 
Public  School  Systems  44 

Table  VIII.  New  York  State  Normal  Schools— Attend- 
ance and  Graduates 48 

Table         IX.    Increase  in   University  Enrollment   1915-1920    49 

Table  X.  Comparison  of  Intelligence  in  Pennsylvania 
Colleges  and  Normal  Schools  in  Octo- 
ber, 1919  52 

Table  XI.  Comparison  of  Ability  of  Freshmen  in  Nor- 
mal Schools  and  Universities  as  Meas- 
ured by  the  Army  Alpha  Test 53 

Table  XII.  Henry  C.  Frick  Educational  Commission, 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 69 

Table  XIII.  Remuneration  and  Educational  Requirements 
of  Nurses  in  General  Hospitals  in  the 
United  States 86 

Table  XIV.  Present  Occupation  of  American  Rhodes 

Scholars,  1904-1914  89 

Table  XV.  Activities  of  General  Education  Board  of 

Methodist  Church  (Report  of  1920) 93 

Table  XVI.  Activities  of  General  Education  Board  of 

Presbyterian  Church  (Report  of  1920)..  94 

5 


o      STATE;  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

Table    XVII.    Chicago  Presbytery — Membership  of  Churches     96 

Table  XVIII.  Chicago  Presbytery — Change  of  Membership 

in  last  year  97 

Table  XIX.  Chicago  Presbytery — Sunday  School  Member- 
ship   98 

Table        XX.    Chicago  Presbytery — Congregational  Expenses     99 

Table      XXI.    Chicago  Presbytery — Benevolences  100 

Table  XXII.  Record  of  Scholarship  Students  in  Washing- 
ton and  Jefferson  College 114 

Table  XXIII.    Comparative   Record   of    Aided   and   Unaided 

Students — 'Syracuse    University 114 

Table  XXIV.    Comparative  Records  from  New  York  State 

College   for   Teachers 116 

Table     XXV.    Appendix  A.  .  Assistance  Rendered  by  States 

to  Prospective  Teachers  139 

Diagram  i.     Relation    of    Cost    of    Living    and    Change    in 

Teachers'    Salaries    19 

Diagram  2.     Graph    for    Table    VII 45 

Diagram  3.     Graph  for  Table  X 51 

Diagram  4.     Graph   for  Table  XI 54 

Diagram  5.     From  Survey  of  Indiana  High  School  Seniors.,   no 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  PROSPECTIVE  TEACHER  AND  THE  STATE 

The  public  school  systems  of  the  several  states  require  a 
large  number  of  new  teachers  every  year.  The  factors 
that  determine  vocational  choice  should  be  studied  by 
investigators  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  what  induce- 
ments the  state  must  offer,  in  order  to  attract  recruits  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  make  suitable  selection  and  ample 
training  possible. 

CONDITIONS  THAT  MAKE  A  PROFESSION  ATTRACTIVE 

As  a  young  person  surveys  the  possibilities  of  different 
professional  careers,  a  factor  of  importance  for  his  con- 
sideration is  the  salary  paid.  He  must  be  able  to  live  in 
a  manner  corresponding  to  the  position  he  occupies  in 
the  community.  His  earnings  must  enable  him  to  carry 
insurance,  to  save  for  the  future,  and  to  provide  for  those 
dependent  upon  him.  Another  consideration  of  great 
value  is  the  question  of  tenure.  Will  employment  be 
regular  and  permanent,  and  will  successful  service  be 
rewarded  by  promotion  ?  The  attitude  of  society  toward 
the  work  under  consideration  counts  heavily.  May  the 
worker  associate  with  desirable  people  on  a  basis  of 
equality  on  account  of  the  service  rendered?  What  are 
the  opportunities  for  individual  initiative  and  growth  in 
the  work?  Before  entering  the  profession  it  will  be 
necessary  to  know  what  preliminary  training  is  required 
and  what  kind  of  supervision  is  to  be  expected  from  those 
in  authority. 

When  these  questions  are  correctly  answered,  the  rea- 
sons are  apparent  why  so  many  young  people  are  not 
selecting  teaching  as  a  profession.  The  cost  and  incon- 


8          STATE)  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

venience  of  securing  preliminary  training,  inadequate 
salaries,  uncertain  tenure,  and  undesirable  social  and 
living  conditions, — all  contribute  to  the  lack  of  trained 
teachers.  In  rural  sections  all  of  these  causes  are  inten- 
sified by  the  fact  that  supervision  is  usually  remote  and 
consequently  infrequent.  In  the  larger  communities  teach- 
ing encounters  the  competition  of  many  other  occupations 
which  often  prove  to  be  more  attractive.  The  resulting 
shortage  in  the  cities  is  supplied  by  drawing  from  the 
country  districts  the  best  qualified  teachers  to  be  found 
there,  or  by  employing  local  persons  of  inferior  prepara- 
tion. Both  tendencies  produce  a  situation  that  has  been 
a  persistent  menace  to  the  success  of  the  public  schools. 

The  elements  which  make  a  profession  attractive  are 
intimately  interwoven.  If  the  drawing  power  of  teaching 
is  to  be  increased,  the  states  must  make  a  united  effort 
to  improve  all  of  the  factors. 

TEACHER  TRAINING  AS  A  STATE  FUNCTION 

For  many  years  the  states  have  been  endeavoring  to 
prepare  teachers  for  the  public  schools.  By  the  invest- 
ment of  large  sums  of  public  money  in  grounds,  buildings, 
and  equipment  for  teacher  training,  the  obligation  to 
provide  adequately  trained  teachers  has  been  admitted. 
Additional  evidence  of  the  state's  interest  in  securing 
trained  teachers  is  supplied  by  the  fact  that  every  state 
provides  free  tuition  in  some  form  for  prospective  teach- 
ers.1 

The  duty  of  the  state  has  not  been  discharged  when  a 
system  of  licensing  teachers  by  state  authority  permits 
those  who  have  had  meager  academic  training  and  little 
or  no  professional  preparation  to  enter  into  the  vital  rela- 


ISee  Appendix  A. 

2For   example,    Provisional   Certificates   in   Pa.,   third  grade  certificates 
in  Missouri. 


THE  PROSPECTIVE  TEACHER  AND  THE  STATE  9 

tionships  of  the  school  room.2  Citizens  should  demand 
that  the  state  perform  more  completely  and  more  equita- 
bly its  duty  of  training  teachers. 

The  needs  of  the  schools  are  not  met  if  some  of  the 
teachers  are  well  trained  and  others  are  permitted  to 
remain  untrained  or  undertrained.  This  situation  is  not 
fair  to  the  professional  teacher,  who  has  spent  time  and 
money  in  preparation  and  then  is  thrown  into  economic 
competition  with  the  cheap  service  of  the  untrained  ama- 
teur. It  is  still  more  unfair  to  those  pupils  whose  opopr- 
tunities  are  thus  limited  by  the  inadequacy  of  a  state 
policy. 

Effective  school  systems  compel  the  children  to  attend 
regularly.  This  power  on  the  part  of  the  state  implies  a 
corresponding  duty:  namely,  that  the  state  provide  the 
conditions  upon  which  the  most  desirable  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  school  attendance  depend.  It  is  universally 
admitted  that  the  teacher  is  the  most  important  element 
in  the  success -of  the  school;  hence  the  effective  prepara- 
tion of  teachers  should  constitute  cne  of  the  important 
objectives  in  any  program  for  the  development  and  im- 
provement of  the  schools. 

EXTENSIVE   TRAINING   REQUIRED   FOR  TEACHERS 

The  work  of  teaching  in  the  elementary  school  is  becom- 
ing increasingly  difficult.  The  diversity  and  variety  of 
the  subjects  included  in  the  curriculum,  the  expanding 
knowledge  of  the  laws  of  learning,  and  the  development 
of  the  principles  of  the  fine  art  of  teaching, — all  emphasize 
the  need  for  extensive  training.  The  difficulty  and  im- 
portance of  teaching  demand  a  proportionate  thorough- 
ness in  preliminary  preparation. 

is  TEACHING  A  PROFESSION? 

The  requirement  of  careful  and  exhaustive  training  is 
an  essential  feature  of  the  learned  professions  and  the 


tendency  has  been  to  prolong  professional  training  in  law 
and  medicine.3 

Teaching  possesses  many  of  the  characteristics  which 
place  it  among  the  professional  careers.  It  deals  with 
human  beings  rather  than  with  materials;  it  is  founded 
upon  fundamental  principles  that  regulate  procedure. 
There  has  not  as  yet  been  developed  among  teachers  a 
code  of  ethics  comparable  to  those  that  prevail  in  law  and 
medicine.  "Owing  to  the  large  numbers  employed  in 
public  school  teaching,  the  wide  territory  over  which 
they  are  scattered,  the  inadequate  preparation  of  many 
of  them,  and  the  short  period  of  service  characteristic 
of  the  teacher,  it  has  been  difficult  to  develop  and  main- 
tain a  thoroughly  well  organized  professional  conscious- 
ness, expressing  itself  in  the  recognition  of  a  definite 
series  of  professional  ethics."4  But,  notwithstanding 
this  lack,  there  is  a  sharp  contrast  between  teaching  and 
the  trades,  which  justifies  its  classification  with  the  other 
professions.  The  state  has  the  power  to  eliminate  any 
deficiencies  which  prevent  teaching  from  complete  recog- 
nition as  a  profession,  and  at  the  same  time  to  render  a 
distinct  service  to  the  public  schools. 

AMOUNT  OF  TRAINING  REQUIRED 

The  efforts  of  the  states  to  improve  the  teaching  per- 
sonnel are  eminently  justified  by  the  fact  that  so  large  a 
proportion  of  the  teachers  of  the  nation  as  a  whole  have 
insufficient  preparation  as  measured  by  the  prevailing 
standards  of  the  professional  schools  of  teaching, — the 
normal  schools.  Two  years  of  professional  work  beyond 
the  four  year  high  school  course  is  less  than  the  require- 
ment in  the  other  professions  and  while  many  normal 
schools  are  now  offering  four  years  of  training  leading  to 

3)  Articles   on   Law   and   Medicine — Cyclopedia    of   Education. — 
Monroe. 

4)  H.  Suzzallo,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  Profession  of  Teaching, 
p.  535. 


THE;  PROSPECTIVE;  TEACHER  AND  THE;  STATS        n 

collegiate  degrees,  these  extended  programs  do  not  enroll 
as  yet  an  appreciable  proportion  of  the  students.  It  is 
not  possible  in  a  short  time,  for  a  sufficient  number  of 
teachers  to  obtain  the  preliminary  training  which  is  ad- 
mittedly essential  to  give  them  professional  recognition. 
As  a  result,  entirely  and  relatively  untrained  teachers  in 
large  numbers  have  been  employed  in  order  to  keep  the 
schools  open. 

The  elimination  of  the  unfit  teachers  involves  a  per- 
sistent program  through  a  period  of  years, — a  program 
that  makes  use  of  all  means  that  lead  to  the  ultimate  goal 
of  a  trained  teacher  in  every  classroom.  Until  this  rea- 
sonable ideal  is  attained,  criticism  of  the  public  school 
may  be  expected,  and  many  of  its  failures  may  be  con- 
sidered as  unnecessary  and  preventable. 

TEACHER  SHORTAGE5 

One  of  the  problems  that  the  war  forced  upon  the 
attention  of  the  public  was  the  distressing  shortage  of 
teachers.  This  lack  was  caused  in  part  by  the  large 
number  of  teachers  who  left  the  profession  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  high  salaries  paid  in  many  branches  of  war 
work.  Closed  schools6  and  the  employment  of  unquali- 
fied emergency  substitutes7  were  additional  evidences  of 
the  gravity  of  the  situation.  Serious  as  these  conditions 
were,  the  supply  of  teachers  prepared  by  the  training  insti- 

5)  Note:  Although  many  untrained  teachers  were  employed  in 
1914,  no  article  discussing  the  problem  of  teacher  shortage 
was  listed  under  that  title  in  Poole's  "Readers  Guide  to  Peri- 
odical Literature"  for  that  year.  In  191'9  twelve  articles  were 
listed,  and  twenty-five  or  more  appeared  in  1920.  Magazines 
other  than  those  devoted  primarily  to  education  have  per- 
ceived the  value  of  informing  their  readers  with  reference 
to  the  crisis  in  the  public  schools.  "The  Atlantic  Monthly," 
"Scribner's,"  "The  North  American  Review,"  "The  Yale  Re- 
view," The  Survey"  and  "The  World's  Work"  are  among 
the  number. 

3)  See  Discussion  on  Conditions  in  Montana,  Chapter  II,  p.   30. 

7)  See  N.  B.  A.  Report  on  Teacher  Shortage,  October,  1920,  p.  36. 


12     STATE  MAINTENANCE;  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

tutions  was  entirely  inadequate  and  contributed  to  the 
actual  lack  of  teachers.  Necessarily  standards  were  often 
lowered  in  order  to  secure  teachers  of  any  kind.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that  closed  schools  are  not  a  complete 
measure  of  teacher  shortage. 

It  is  an  implied  obligation  of  the  state  not  only  that 
teachers  be  supplied  but  that  they  have  the  preparation 
which  is  recognized  as  a  reasonable  minimum.  The  true 
teacher  shortage  is  the  number  needed  at  any  time  to 
replace  teachers  who  lack  this  minimum  preparation.8 
The  interest  of  the  public  in  the  conditions  which  caused 
the  lack  of  competent  teachers  and  in  proposed  remedies 
is  clearly  justified. 

Thousands  of  children  in  some  of  the  large  cities,  such 
as  New  York,  for  example,  have  been  attending  but  part 
time,  a  condition  which  may  result  in  a  reduction  in  the 
number  of  teachers  required.  Again  the  number  of  teach- 
ers employed  does  not  reveal  the  fact  that  the  enrollment 
per  teacher  may  be  far  in  excess  of  forty,  which  is  a  rea- 
sonable maximum.  If  these  conditions  were  bettered 
through  additional  housing  facilities  and  reduction  in 
size  of  classes,  the  resulting  demand  for  teachers  would 
further  emphasize  the  lack  of  an  adequate  supply, 
although  no  exact  figures  can  be  compiled  to  show  how 
many  additional  teachers  are  actually  needed.  It  may, 
however,  be  safely  assumed  that  the  deficit  is  always 
greater  than  the  information  obtainable  would  indicate.9 

In  all  of  its  educational  opportunities,  the  state  offers 
to  every  child  a  measure  of  participation  that  is  limited 
only  by  his  ability,  his  ambition,  and  his  attainments. 
Justice  requires  that  each  pupil  receive  a  full  day's  instruc- 
tion in  a  group  of  not  more  than  normal  size,  under 
guidance  of  a  teacher  who  has  had  at  least  two  years  of 

8)  Definition  of  teacher-shortage  used  in  this  study. 

9)  N.  E.  A.  Emergency  Commission  Series,  No.  3,  p.  10. 


13 

professional  work  beyond  a  four-year  high  school  course, 
— the  standard  of  preparation  that  is  now  generally 
accepted  as  the  lowest  acceptable  minimum.  How  can 
these  trained  teachers  be  secured?  Several  factors  will 
contribute  toward  this  desirable  goal.  Every  method  that 
can  hasten  the  process  should  'be  utilized. 

REMEDIES   FOR  TEACHER  SHORTAGE 

I.     Training  teachers  in  service: 

It-  has  been  proposed  to  solve  this  problem  by  employing 
untrained  recruits  and  by  training  them  in  service  on  an 
apprenticeship  plan.  Years  of  experience  with  this 
method  have  demonstrated  that  it  alone  will  not  produce 
a  trained  teacher  in  every  classroom.10 

In  the  rural  schools  where  approximately  300,000 
teachers  are  employed,  training  in  service  fails  because 
supervision  is  so  infrequent  and  so  remote.  Training  in 
service  cannot  succeed  in  the  rural  districts  because  so 
many  teachers  move  every  year  and  remain  in  the  profes- 
sion for  so  short  a  time.  Those  teachers  who  succeed  are 
frequently  promoted  to  better  salaried  and  otherwise 
more  attractive  positions  in  the  larger  communities.  The 
failures  remain  in  the  rural  field  until  they  can  find  some 
other  occupation  or  until  the  school  board  selects  some 
one  else,  probably  no  better  prepared,  to  undertake  the 
difficult  problems  of  teaching.  Meanwhile,  the  pupils 
are  being  subjected  to  the  unhappy  experience  of  serving 
as  material  with  which  to  train  these  transient  recruits. 
Such  a  plan  is  an  expedient,  the  results  of  which  have 
already  condemned  it  as  a  controlling  policy,  for  it  tends 
to  keep  in  the  profession  on  its  lower  levels  a  large  pro- 
portion of  recruits  with  meager  training. 

The  training  of  teachers  after  they  have  entered  the 
service  is  a  proposed  solution  that  neglects  the  fact  that 
teaching  is  a  difficult  task,  a  fine  art.  It  puts  a  premium 

10)  See  Quotations  from  Surveys,  Chapter  II,  p.  38. 


14     STATE;  MAINTENANCE;  OF  TE;ACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

on  the  incidental  agencies  of  supervision,  teachers'  insti- 
tutes, and  summer  schools,  as  substitutes  for  genuine 
and  basic  training  in  an  institution  organized  and  main- 
tained for  this  one  purpose. 

The  employment  of  unprepared  persons  as  teachers 
with  the  expectation  of  training  them  in  the  schools,  con- 
centrates the  aim  of  educational  effort  upon  the  personal 
needs  of  the  teachers,  and  disregards  the  fact  that  the 
schools  exist  for  the  pupils.  Parents  have  objected  occa- 
sionally to  the  attendance  of  their  children  in  practice 
schools  connected  with  normal  schools,  where  the  work 
of  the  student  teachers  is  carefully  planned  and  super- 
vised by  skilled  experts.  It  would  be  far  more  reasonable 
for  parents  to  rise  in  revolt  against  the  undirected  work 
of  many  rural  teachers  whose  previous  preparation  is 
often  inferior  to  that  of  the  student  in  the  normal  school. 

Again  it  has  been  urged  that  untrained  teachers  may 
take  extension  courses  or  correspondence  courses  and 
thus  acquire  the  training  they  lack.  A  conscientious 
rural  school  teacher  has  so  much  to  do  in  daily  prepara- 
tion that  either  these  outside  and  often  unrelated  courses 
or  his  regular  work  must  suffer.  Ihis  type  of  training 
lacks  the  personal  contact  with  the  instructor  and  with 
fellow  students  that  is  so  important  an  element  in  insti- 
tutional life,  and  cannot  result  in  the  value  derived  from 
the  training  school  for  practice. 

When  untrained  teachers  are  placed  under  close  super- 
vision, in  districts  where  high  school  graduates  without 
professional  courses  are  admitted  as  teachers,  the  results 
are  easily  predictable.  Such  teachers  have  no  professional 
background  upon  which  to  base  their  judgments;  either 
they  become  undiscerning  followers  of  directions,  depend- 
ent upon  their  supervisors,  or,  restive  under  control,  they 
desert  the  profession  as  soon  as  the  other  opportunity 
offers. 


THE;  PROSPECTIVE:  TEACHER  AND  THE  STATE        15 

If  the  state  is  responsible  for  the  training  of  teachers, 
it  is  a  questionable  policy  to  permit  the  untrained  to 
secure  their  preparation  in  the  service  where  the  legiti- 
mate direction  and  oversight  of  that  function  by  state 
authority  is  impossible.  The  work  of  school  administra- 
tors is  sufficiently  taxing  when  they  have  the  cooperation 
of  a  trained  body  of  teachers.  Cities  often  require  both 
training  and  experience  for  admission  to  the  teaching 
staff,  although  the  opportunity  for  expert  supervision  is 
there  superior  to  that  found  in  smaller  communities.  The 
burdens  of  the  supervisory  staff  are  multiplied  and  its 
energies  diverted  from  more  legitimate  duties  if  it  is 
required  to  give  fundamental  teacher  training  in  order 
to  supply  the  lack  of  institutional  preparation. 

To  train  teachers  in  service  to  the  exclusion  of  prelim- 
inary training  is  to  perpetuate  the  transient  character  of 
the  teaching  population  and  to  encourage  the  employment 
of  the  immature  and  incompetent.  Teaching  cannot  take 
the  place  that  it  should  among  the  professions  until  it  is 
as  difficult  for  an  untrained  person  to  be  admitted  within 
its  ranks  as  it  is  for  an  untrained  person  to  receive  a 
license  to  practice  medicine. 

Trained  teachers  have  abundant  opportunity  for  growth 
in  the  profession  and  are  able  to  derive  from  such  train- 
ing benefits  that  are  directly  proportional  to  their  prelim- 
inary preparation.  They  possess  the  foundation  upon 
which  to  build.  It  is  one  of  the  important  duties  of  ad- 
ministrators to  stimulate  teachers  to  self-improvement 
through  self-discipline,  through  professional  reading,  and 
through  summer  school  attendance,  but  such  development 
should  supplement  and  not  supplant  preliminary  training. 
2.  Larger  salaries  as  a  solution  for  teacher  shortage: 

The  attractiveness  of  teaching  as  a  profession  has  been 
seriously  reduced  by  the  payment  of  inadequate  salaries. 
Salary  schedules  have  often  failed  to  discriminate  prop- 


l6       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

erly  between  the  merits  of  the  prepared  and  the  untrained 
teacher.  The  inequalities  in  salaries  in  positions  of  the 
same  rank  under  the  system  of  local  control  that  prevails 
in  the  public  schools,  have  resulted  in  injustice  and  dis- 
satisfaction. As  long  as  there  is  an  insufficient  supply  of 
trained  teachers  the  more  attractive  salaries  in  the  richer 
communities  will  continue  to  draw  the  more  ambitious 
and  better  prepared  teachers  from  those  districts  that  are 
unable  to  meet  the  competition. 

To  increase  salaries  without  modifying  the  certification 
laws,  would  not  add  to  the  professional  equipment  of  the 
beginner.  To  pay  higher  salaries  to  unprepared  and 
incompetent  persons  who  desire  to  use  teaching  as  a  step- 
ping stone,  would  only  intensify  and  extend  the  evils  now 
apparent. 

As  a  result  of  salary  campaigns,  many  cities  now  pay 
living  wages  to  teachers.  But  the  cities  were  already 
employing  the  best  prepared  teachers,  because  the  most 
attractive  positions  gave  them  the  opportunity  to  select 
from  a  larger  number  of  candidates.  To  give  the  country 
sections  the  same  advantages,  through  salary  increases, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  overcome  the  undesirable  factors 
of  short  school  terms  and  unsatisfactory  living  condi- 
tions by  paying  a  sufficient  differential.11 

When  the  students  from  the  country  do  attend  normal 
school  or  college  and  secure  training,  the  towns  and  cities 
almost  always  obtain  their  services  because  of  the  social 
and  financial  advantages  of  living  in  the  larger  communi- 
ties. In  the  rural  schools  of  Montana  only  twelve  per 
cent,  of  the  teachers  in  1920  were  normal  or  college 
graduates,  although  32.45%  of  the  elementary  teachers 
of  the  state  possessed  those  qualifications.12 

The  slowness  of  states  and  nations  to  adjust  salaries  to 
new  conditions  accounts  for  the  wholesale  resignations 

11)  As  in  Saskatchewan  and  Queensland. 

12)  See  Table  II,  Chapter  II. 


THE  PROSPECTIVE  TEACHER  AND  THE  STATE        17 

from  the  public  service  during  periods  of  rapid  increase 
in  the  cost  of  living.  Burgess  showed  that  teachers' 
salaries  in  1920  should  have  been  100%  in  advance  of  the 
level  reached  in  1915  in  order  to  possess  equal  purchasing 
power,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  increases  averaged  less 
than  a  50%  advance  over  pre-war  salaries.  Other  wage 
levels  doubled  the  standard  of  191 5-13 

The  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1920 
states  that  the  average  salary  of  teachers  in  rural  schools, 
based  upon  data  from  three  typical  counties  in  each  of 
forty-seven  states  was  $635.96.  The  average  for  white 
male  teachers  was  $711.68.  The  conditions  which  were 
most  favorable  for  further  increasing  salaries  have  'been 
changed  by  falling  prices,  due  to  deflation  and  to  a  reac- 
tion against  high  taxes.  Salaries  in  the  rural  schools  are 
not  likely,  in  the  near  future,  to  be  increased  very  much 
beyond  the  average  of  1920.  Such  salaries  would  not  be 
a  sufficient  inducement  for  a  young  high  school  graduate 
to  invest  the  necessary  time  and  money  on  two  years  of 
training. 

Diagram  No.  i  shows  the  wide  variation  between  rise 
in  cost  of  living  and  increase  in  salary  of  the  women 
teachers  of  Pennsylvania.  In  the  seven  years  repre- 
sented, living  costs  were  doubled  while  salaries  were 
only  raised  thirty  per  cent.  In  order  to  remove  teacher 
shortage  by  increase  in  salary  alone,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary for  salaries  to  be  so  far  above  the  cost  of  living 
that  the  margin  of  saving  would  justify  the  heavy  ex- 
pense of  preliminary  preparation.  It  would  take  an  un- 
known element  of  time  for  these  acquired  margins  to  be 
recognized  in  society  at  large,  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
number  of  recruits  necessary  to  supply  the  need  would 
volunteer  to  invest  time  and  money  in  professional  prep- 
aration. 

13)  Burgess,  Trends  of  School  Costs,  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
New   York,    1920. 


i8     STATE;  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

It  is  especially  difficult  to  persuade  prospective  teachers 
to  invest  in  training,  when  it  is  possible  to  receive  practi- 
cally the  same  salary  without  incurring  the  expense  of 
preparation.  The  two  factors  of  'better  preliminary  train- 
ing and  increased  salaries  cannot  be  separated  safely  in 
state  policy.  In  periods  of  'business  depression,  when  the 
offices  and  factories  have  reduced  the  number  of  their 
employees,  a  large  group  who  were  teachers  formerly 
will  drift  back  into  the  school  room  to  seek  temporary 
employment.  The  schools  do  not  close  on  account  of 
hard  times,  hence  low  standards  for  certification  permit 
these  relatively  untrained  transients  to  compete  for  posi- 
tions in  the  more  stable  occupation  of  teaching.  Without 
proper  legal  safeguards,  such  a  group  of  temporary  and 
untrained  persons  will  underbid  the  trained  and  experi- 
enced teachers  and  thus  undermine  the  foundations  of  an 
adequate  salary  schedule. 

Higher  salaries  based  upon  the  amount  of  preparation 
are  essential  to  the  future  of  the  profession  of  teaching. 
The  states  have  not  performed  their  full  duty  towards 
the  children  when  they  tolerate  such  inadequate  salaries 
especially  in  the  rural  schools.  The  scarcity  of  good 
teachers  in  those  districts  is  undoubtedly  due  in  part  to 
poor  salaries. 
3.  Are  ftiore  normal  schools  required? 

The  creation  of  more  training  institutions  is  offered 
as  a  simple  solution  for  teacher-shortage.  But  the  fact 
that  the  facilities  of  many, — apparently  most, — of  the 
existing  normal  schools  are  not  being  utilized  to  capacity 
shows  that  the  problem  is  not  to  be  solved  in  this  way. 

Eventually,  when  the  conditions  in  the  profession  are 
what  they  should  be,  many  more  normal  schools  will  be 
needed  to  train  enough  teachers  for  all  the  schools.  The 
tendency  of  training  institutions  to  draw  on  their  own 


THE  PROSPECTIVE  TEACHER  AND  THE  STATE        19 


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2o     STATE;  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

vicinity  for  students  is  used  as  an  argument  for  increas- 
ing their  number,  because  it  is  cheaper  for  a  student  to 
live  at  home-  during  his  period  of  training.  It  is  also 
urged  that  a  multiplication  of  normal  schools  in  a  state 
will  more  directly  influence  the  neighboring  communities. 
In  Indiana,  until  very  recently,  the  one  state  normal 
school  was  at  Terre  Haute;  it  rendered  twelve  per  cent, 
of  its  service  to  the  tier  of  counties  surrounding  the  one 
in  which  it  is  located,  although  these  counties  contain 
only  four  per  cent,  of  the  state  population.  The  region 
in  which  the  school  is  located  received  three  or  four  times 
the  amount  of  service  to  which  it  is  entitled  on  the  basis 
of  population.14 

Portions  of  states  that  are  remote  from  normal  schools 
greatly  feel  the  need  of  their  influence.  Superintendent 
Kendall  in  his  report  for  1913  quotes  letters  from  girls 
in  Southern  New  Jersey  of  which  the  following  is  an 
example:  "The  only  reason  for  my  not  attending  the 
normal  school  was  the  expense,  on  account  of  the  nor- 
mal school  being  too  far  from  my  home."  Since,  for  the 
present,  the  cost  of  multiplying  normal  schools  may  out- 
weigh other  advantages,  the  state  may  equalize  the  oppor- 
tunities for  training  by  such  an  expedient  as  bearing  the 
cost  of  transportation  of  students.  The  attempt  to  bring 
the  training  to  the  local  community  through  the  high 
school  training  classes  for  rural  teachers,  is  a  temporary 
expedient,  for  it  is  quite  impossible  to  develop  effective 
professional  schools  in  every  center  of  population. 
4.  Public  opinion  as  a  factor  in  teacher-shortage: 

The  attitude  of  the  public  and  of  many  teachers  them- 
selves is  so  critical  toward  the  teaching,  profession  that 
it  has  contributed  to  teacher-shortage.  The  disparaging 
and  contemptuous  attitude  of  the  public  to  the  teaching 

14)  Standardizing  State  Normal  Schools,  Judd  and  Parker.  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.   12,  1916. 


THE   PROSPECTIVE  TEACHER  AND  THE  STATE  21 

profession  has  militated  against  its  effectiveness.  It  is 
time  that  ridicule  and  caricature  meted  out  to  the  teacher 
should  be  replaced  by  a  genuine  appreciation  of  the  im- 
portance of  his  work  to  the  state.  Public  opinion  is  a 
force  of  great  influence  and  a  better  appreciation  of  the 
teacher's  service  would  assist  measurably  in  the  recruit- 
ing of  candidates  of  ability. 

High  school  and  college  students  have  been  induced 
to  enter  other  occupations  because  of  a  vague  social 
stigma  that  has  been  attached  to  the  profession  of  teach- 
ing. "At  college  reunions  successful  business  men  are 
heralded  as  'live  wires'  and  those  who  still  teach  are 
called  'dead  ones.'  "15  Now  that  so  many  opportunities 
are  opening  for  women  in  business  and  public  service,  it 
will  be  increasingly  difficult  to  secure  women  of  the  de- 
sired ability  unless  something  is  done  to  change  the 
public  estimation  of  the  profession.  In  order  to  create 
this  attitude  the  state  itself  must  assist  the  public  by 
properly  evaluating  the  worth  and  dignity  of  the  teacher's 
'work.  To  this  end  the  unfit  teachers  should  be  eliminated 
by  efficient  certification  laws.  A  supply  of  competent 
teachers  should  be  stimulated  by  state  assistance,  the 
necessity  of  which  it  is  the  aim  of  this  study  to  prove. 
After  preparation,  the  state  still  has  a  duty  to  perform 
in  guaranteeing  adequate  compensation.  Preparation, 
salary,  tenure,  and  pensions,  when  they  become  essential 
elements  in  a  persistent  state  policy,  are  the  factors  which 
will  do  much  to  re-create  a  proper  public  attitude  toward 
the  teaching  profession. 
5.  State  subsidy  for  recruiting  teachers. 

Under  present  conditions  great  inequalities  as  to  edu- 
cational opportunity  exist  between  the  children  in  the 
cities  and  in  the  rural  sections.  The  highest  salaries  and 

15)  Lee  Russell,  "The  Crisis  in  Education,"  Scribner's,  Jan.,  1921. 


22     STATE;  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

the  longest  tenure  and  consequently  the  best  teachers  are 
found  in  the  cities.  As  a  result  many  parents  are  leav- 
ing the  country  in  order  to  secure  for  their  children  the 
educational  advantages  of  the  towns  and  cities.  The 
safety  of  the  nation  requires  the  stability  of  the  rural 
population.  The  rural  children  deserve  a  more  equitable 
distribution  of  the  educational  privileges  provided  by 
public  funds.  Present  state  policy  does  not  adequately 
meet  the  situation.  In  addition  to  the  other  factors 
which  may  tend  to  remove  the  undesirable  conditions 
found  in  the  teaching  profession,  state  assistance  for 
prospective  teachers  is  proposed. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  study  to  investigate  the  extent 
of  teacher-shortage  and  to  discover  in  favored  states  the 
efforts  to  solve  the  problem  already  made  which  will  be 
suggestive  in  those  states  where  the  problem  must  be  at- 
tacked more  vigorously.  Many  foreign  countries  have  had 
experience  in  the  recruiting  of  candidates  for  the  teaching 
profession  by  means  of  subsidies.  The  study  of  the  prin- 
ciples and  problems  involved  in  the  provision  of  local  and 
national  subsidies  for  prospective  teachers  as  a  part  of 
the  larger  problem  of  increasing  the  supply  of  trained 
teachers  will  accordingly  be  the  chief  aim  of  the  following 
pages. 

SUMMARY 

1 .  Teaching  has  failed  to  attract  a  sufficient  supply  of 
recruits  to  make  adequate  selection  and  training  possible. 
State  control  of  education  locates  the  responsibility  for 
teacher  training  and  for  the  equalization  of  educational 
opportunity  upon  the  state. 

2.  The  policy  of  training  teachers  after  they  enter  the 
service  as  a  substitute  for  institutional  preparation  has  not 
been   successful,   especially   in   the   open   country.     The 
unequal   salaries   paid   in   the  rural  schools  and  in   the 


THE  PROSPECTIVE;  TEACHER  AND  THE  STATE        23 

cities  have  drawn  the  better  teachers  to  the  centers  of 
population. 

3.  The  public  attitude  toward  teaching  has  reduced 
the  attendance  in  teacher  training  institutions.     To  im- 
prove the  attractiveness  of  teaching  as  a  profession,  the 
state  must  use  all  the  plans  that  experience  has  proved  to 
be  helpful.  Additional  efforts,  especially  of  an  economic 
and  social  nature,  must  be  made  if  the  rural  schools  are  to 
be  taught  by  competent  teachers. 

4.  The  purpose  of  this  present  study  is  to  investigate 
the  principles,  problems,  and  practices  involved  in  a  sys- 
tem of  subsidies  for  prospective  teachers  as  one  method 
of  recruiting  the  profession. 


CHAPTER  II 

A    SURVEY    OF    CONDITIONS    WHICH    MAY 

JUSTIFY    ADDITIONAL    AID     FOR 

PROSPECTIVE  TEACHERS 

State  subsidies  for  prospective  teachers  are  advocated 
by  those  whose  main  purpose  is  to  supply  an  essential  need 
in  the  public  school  system.  If  the  lack  of  trained  teach- 
ers is  a  serious  problem  in  the  various  states,  methods  of 
supplying  the  deficiency  should  be  found  as  speedily  as 
possible.  One  of  the  great  merits  of  the  public  school 
system  has  been  its  ability  to  adjust  itself  to  new  condi- 
tions and  to  make  changes  as  the  demand  arose.  The 
curriculum  has  changed  from  the  three  R's  of  the  older 
days  to  the  complex  and  greatly  enriched  programs  of  the 
modern  school.  Free  textbooks,  compulsory  attendance, 
medical  inspection,  vocational  education,  secondary  edu- 
cation, and  higher  education  are  examples  of  changes  in 
policy  that  states  have  made  in  an  effort  to  adjust  the 
schools  to  the  demands  of  a  developing  civilization. 

The  war  focused  attention  upon  several  problems  re- 
lated to  the  schools  which  require  study  and  solution. 
Illiteracy,  physical  inefficiency,  and  very  wide  individual 
differences  in  native  intelligence,  were  revealed  by  the 
examination  of  the  men  in  the  camps.  Each  has  its  rela- 
tion to  school  practice  and  efficiency.  If  the  public  schools 
are  to  solve  such  problems,  the  training  and  selection  of 
the  teachers  have  added  significance. 

A  study  of  the  teaching  population  in  two  typical  states 
will  give  a  basis  for  further  analysis  of  the  problem  of 
the  need  of  state  subsidies  for  prospective  teachers. 

25 


26       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 
TEACHING    POPULATION    OF    MISSOURI.1 

In  the  rural  schools  of  Missouri,  in  1915,  only  3%  of 
the  10,500  rural  teachers  had  had  the  standard  prepara- 
tion of  six  years  beyond  the  elementary  school  course, 
while  63%  had  had  less  than  a  four-year  high  school 
course.  In  the  graded  elementary  schools,  omitting  those 
of  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis,  84%  of  the  teachers  had 
had  less  than  the  six-year  course.  The  training  of  the 
secondary  school  teachers  was  more  nearly  adequate  in 
the  first  and  second  class  high  schools.  In  the  lower 
classes  one-eighth  of  the  teachers  had  had  less  than  a 
four-year  course  beyond  the  elementary  school.  These 
conditions  have  been  improved  to  some  extent  on  account 
of  the  influence  of  the  survey  but  the  effect  of  the  world 
war  has  been  to  check,  for  the  time  at  least,  rapid  progress. 
When  these  two  factors  are  considered,  the  probability  is 
that  these  groups  now  comprise  a  large  proportion  of 
poorly  prepared  teachers. 

The  characteristic  rural  teacher  has  attended  high 
school  for  two  or  three  years  and  has  taken  six  months 
of  additional  secondary  instruction  together  with  some 
professional  courses  at  a  normal  school.  The  effect  of 
this  normal  school  training,  however  brief,  is  shown  to  be 
significant  in  the  salaries  paid.  Eighty-five  per  cent,  of 
those  who  attended  state  normal  schools  received  more 
than  forty  dollars  a  month,  as  compared  with  66%  in 
the  case  of  high  school  graduates  only,  and  50%  in  the 
case  of  high  school  non-graduates.2  The  median  salary 
of  all  elementary  teachers,  trained  and  untrained  alike, 
was  $450.00,  while  more  than  one-fifth  received  $360.00 
or  less. 

According  to  the  Report  of  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Schools  for  Missouri  for  1918-19,  the  average 

1)  See  Table  I,  pp.  27-28. 

2)  Bulletin   No.    14,  Carnegie  Foundation,  p.   362. 


A   SURVEY   Of   CONDITIONS 


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A  SURVEY  OF   CONDITIONS  29 

salaries  of  teachers  of  this  state  have  been  advancing  for 
several  years.  In  1917-18  it  was  $440.00  for  an  eight- 
month  term;  in  1918-19  it  was  $528.00,  and  in  1919-20  it 
was  $592.00.  In  the  meantime  the  cost  of  living  had 
doubled  so  that  the  increase  in  salary  would  not  justify 
expensive  training  at  a  normal  school  as  an  investment. 
Again  the  certification  law  passed  in  1917  permits  the 
renewal  of  the  third  grade  certificate  once  without  exam- 
ination. Inasmuch  as  previous  law  permits  four  such 
examinations  to  be  taken,  eight  years  may  be  taught  with 
no  better  grade  of  certificate.  This  is  a  period  far  in  ex- 
cess of  the  average  tenure  for  the  rural  schools,  as  returns 
from  these  teachers  showed  that  2400  new  teachers,  or 
2$%,  in  this  group  alone  were  needed  annually.  Under 
these  conditions,  a  trained  teacher  for  every 'school  in 
Missouri  is  an  impossible  ideal. 

TEACHING   POPULATION   OF   MONTANA 

Montana  received  first  rank  among  the  states  in  educa- 
tional accomplishment  in  1918  by  the  index  number 
method  applied  by  Ayres.  On  account  of  the  state's  high 
standing,  the  condition  of  its  teaching  population  has 
special  interest.  A  state  survey  quoted  at  length  in  the 
State  Superintendent's  report  for  1920  gives  the  desired 
data.  Many  important  factors  in  school  progress  were 
not  included  in  the  index  number  method.  Among  these 
were  the  educational  requirements  for  teachers  and  the 
facilities  for  training  teachers.  By  law,  after  July  I,  1920, 
the  minimum  requirements  were  fixed  at  two  years  of 
high  school  and  twelve  weeks  of  normal  school  training. 

In  Table  II  it  is  shown  that  30%  of  the  elementary 
teachers  had  unsatisfactory  preparation  and  that  46% 
of  the  rural  teachers  had  very  little  professional  training. 
In  the  cities  about  96%  of  the  elementary  teachers  have 
had  some  professional  preparation.  The  survey  shows 


30     STATE;  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

that  65%  of  the  rural  teachers  had  taken  no  professional 
courses  within  five  years,  and  that  58.3%  of  the  elemen- 
tary teachers  received  less  than  $900.00. 

In  Table  III  14%'  of  the  high  school  teachers  are 
shown  to  fall  short  of  standard  preparation  for  their 
work.  A  large  percentage  of  the  high  school  teachers 
are  normal  school  graduates.  When  the  data  are  com- 
pared for  ten  years4  it  is  evident  that  the  normal  school 
graduates  and  the  college  or  university  graduates  have 
almost  uniformly  maintained  the  same  ratio  to  the  entire 
number  of  teachers  employed.  In  fact,  since  1917,  there 
has  been  a  gradual  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  each 
group. 

Table  V  on  average  salaries  shows  that  the  normal 
school  graduate  is  preferred  in  the  elementary  schools  to 
the  college  graduate  so  far  as  the  salary  received  can 
show  it,  while  the  reverse  is  true  in  the  high  schools. 

Several  facts  relating  to  teacher-shortage  are  disclosed 
by  this  survey  that  work  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  coun- 
try school. 

1.  The  cities  employ  normal  school  and  college  gradu- 
ates to  the  extent  of  73%  of  their  grade  teachers,  the  rural 
districts  only  37%. 

2.  The  cities  pay  teachers  with  experience  more  than 
twice  the  average  salary  of  rural  teachers  without  experi- 
ence. 

3.  The  cities  pay  inexperienced  elementary  teachers 
an  average  of  $977.68,  which  is  $144.00  more  than  rural 
teachers  with  many  years  of  experience  receive. 

During  1919-20  Montana  was  short  227  teachers  and 
in  the  fall  of  1920  there  was  a  shortage  of  513  teachers  in 
35  counties  and  because  of  the  conditions  named  above 
the  lack  was  almost  exclusively  in  the  rural  sections. 


4)  See  Table  IV,  p.  33. 


A   SURVEY  OF   CONDITIONS 


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34       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


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A   SURVEY  OF  CONDITIONS  35 

"During  the  beautiful  fall  months  when  country  children 
can  reach  the  school  building-  without  trudging  through 
deep  snows  or  mud,  many  schools  have  remained  closed 
for  want  of  teachers."9 

In  a  rich  state  like  Montana  something  should  be  done 
to  improve  the  membership  of  the  teaching  population. 
The  preparation  of  these  teachers  must  be  greatly  ex- 
tended in  order  to  merit  adequate  salaries.  The  em- 
phasis in  an  effective  policy  must  be  placed  upon  the  wel- 
fare of  future  generations  as  represented  by  the  children. 

THE)    NATIONAL    SITUATION    WITH    REFERENCE   TO 
TEACHER  SHORTAGE 

The  National  Education  Association  published  in  its 
Bulletin  for  November,  1920,  the  results  of  a  nation-wide 
inquiry  on  the  teacher  situation.  Table  VI  shows  that 
the  lack  of  teachers  had  not  at  that  time  disappeared,  and 
that  licenses  were  issued  in  large  numbers  to  teachers 
who  were  below  standard  for  the  year  1920-21. 

Teacher-shortage  is  not  a  new  problem.  The  economic 
situation  of  1918-20  only  served  to  make  it  more  acute. 
Many  studies  of  large  groups  of  teachers  have  shown  how 
much  remains  to  be  done  by  state  authority  in  order  to 
place  a  trained  teacher  in  every  school.  In  1911  the  me- 
dian number  of  years  of  education  beyond  the  elementary 
school  was  found  to  be  four  years  and  one-fourth  of  all 
teachers  in  rural  schools  had  two  years  or  less.  In  ex- 
perience, the  median  tenure  was  two  years  in  the  rural 
schools  while  25%  had  taught  but  one  year.11  These 
figures  were  based  upon  data  from  seventeen  states. 

Several  state  surveys  were  published  within  ten  years 
after  the  above  quoted  study  was  made,  and  each  one  con- 


9)  State   Superintendent's   Report,    1920,   p.    37. 
11)  Coffman,  The  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching  Population, 
Tables  XII,  XVIII. 


36       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


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A   SURVEY  OF  CONDITIONS 


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38       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

tributed  its  group  of  facts  to  show  the  necessity  for  legis- 
lation to  relieve  a  situation  which  has  been  threatening 
the  success  of  the  public  schools,  especially  in  the  rural 
sections. 

QUOTATIONS  FROM  SURVEYS 
Ohio  (State  Survey  Report,  1914) 12 

Of  8,286  teachers  attending  institutes  in  1913,  15.4%  were  begin- 
ners and  71.4%  of  the  beginners  had  no  professional  training 
whatever.  47.5%  of  527  rural  teachers  actually  surveyed  had  no 
professional  preparation.  7,000  new  teachers  are  needed  annually 
and  only  10%  of  that  number  are  trained  by  existing  institutions. 
Wisconsin  (Survey  of  Normal  Schools,  1914) 13 

Of  the  6,639  one-room  rural  school  teachers,  48%  had  no  pro- 
fessional training.  522  had  not  finished  a  four-year  high  school 
course,  and  1,864  were  teaching  their  first  year. 

Maryland  (Public  Education  in  Maryland,  1915) 14 

Flexner  and  Bachman  say  that  10%  of  the  elementary  teachers 
are  well  trained  and  that  33  1/3%  are  untrained. 
North  Dakota   (Survey  of  Higher  Educational  Institutions)15 

The  experience  of  1,156  out  of  4,981  teachers  in  1916  was  less 
than  one  year.  Less  than  5%  of  the  teachers  in  rural  schools  have 
had  adequate  training,  i.  e.,  two  years  of  training  beyond  the  four- 
year  high  school  course,  although  more  than  four-fifths  of  the 
children  of  the  state  live  in  the  open  country.  The  average  age 
of  the  rural  teacher  is  23  with  an  experience  of  two  years,  while 
the  city  teachers  average  28  years  and  have  had  5.6  years  of 
experience. 
Alabama  (U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No.  41,  1919) 16 

According  to  the  Alabama  Survey,  63%  of  the  rural  and  village 
teachers  report  no  professional  training  whatever.  16%  have 
entered  their  work  from  the  elementary  school,  through  examina- 
tion. Of  3,648  rural  and  village  teachers  reporting,  17.6%  are 
teaching  their  first  year. 

Virginia  (Survey  Report,  1919) 17 

In  eighteen  typical  counties,  73.7%  of  the  white  teachers  in 
elementary  schools  had  no  training  beyond  the  high  school  course 

12)  Ohio  State  School  Survey  Report,  1914,  Chapter  VI,  p.  63ff. 

13)  Farmer,  Conditions  and  Needs  of  Wisconsin  Normal  Schools, 

1914,    pp.    574-576. 

14)  Public  Education  in  Maryland,  1915,  p.  60. 

15)  Survey  of  Higher  Educational  Institutions,  U.  S.  Bureau  of 

Education,   Bulletin   No.   27,   1916,   pp.   80,    197. 

16)  Alabama   Survey,   U.    S.    Bureau   of   Education,   Bulletin   No. 

41,   1919,  pp.   347  and   349. 

17)  Inglis  and  others,  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia,  1919,  pp. 
334,  335. 


A  SURVEY  Of  CONDITIONS  39 

and  more  than  half  of  those  had  only  two  years  or  less  of  high 
school  training.  The  preparation  of  the  colored  teachers  in  the 
same  counties  was  even  more  defective.  For  the  whole  state 
52%  had  less  than  a  complete  high  school  course  as  a  preliminary 
training.  More  than  20%  of  both  white  and  colored  teachers 
were  beginners. 

Delaware    (General  Education  Board,  1919) 18 

In  1918-19,  70%  of  the  teachers  had  no  training  beyond  the  four- 
year  high  school  course  and  25%  were  teaching  their  first  year. 
24.2%  had  completed  a  normal  course  or  had  attended  college. 

Pennsylvania   (Stirdy  by  LeRoy  King  for  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education,  1920) 19 

Of  the  teachers  under  the  supervision  of  the  county  superin- 
tendents 23%  were  without  experience.  25%  of  the  teachers  of 
one-room  schools  were  without  any  training  in  high  school.  At 
least  76%  of  these  teachers  have  entered  upon  their  work  with- 
out professional  training  in  state  normal  schools,  by  the  examina- 
tion route.  52%  of  these  rural  teachers  hold  the  lowest  possible 
type  of  certificate  in  order  to  qualify  as  a  teacher  in  the  state. 

These  data  show  that  the  states  annually  employ  be- 
ginners totaling  from  10%  to  25%  of  their  teaching  force 
and  that  the  preparation  of  these  recruits  is  very  inade- 
quate. The  immediate  problem  for  the  states  to  face  is 
how  to  supply  the  lack  of  trained  teachers  by  means  of 
existing  plans  and  institutions  and  what  new  departures 
to  make  and  additional  facilities  to  create  in  order  to  sup- 
plement former  efforts.  The  progress  that  state  systems 
of  education  have  made  in  adjusting  themselves  to  new 
situations  in  the  past  is  the  basis  for  the  faith  that  this 
vital  need  will  be  satisfied. 

TENURE;  RELATED  TO  TRAINING 

Another  fact  is  apparent  in  these  studies  of  the  teach- 
ing service.  Teaching  has  been  a  temporary  occupation. 
It  has  been  most  attractive  to  certain  groups  of  immature 
people  in  the  country  districts,  because  of  the  lack  of  any 
requirement  for  institutional  preparation  for  entering  the 
work,  and  because  the  employment  served  to  render  them 

18)  Public    Education    in    Delaware,    General    Education    Board, 

1919,  p.  103. 

19)  LeRoy  King,  University  of  Pa.  Bulletin,  Schoolmen's  Week 

Proceedings,   1920,  p.   79ff. 


42       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

cated  in  the  rural  sections  where  the  untrained  and  im- 
mature teachers  are  in  the  majority.27  Training  means 
improvement  with  experience  and  growth  in  service ; 
on  the  other  hand,  a  long  tenure  for  an  untrained  teacher 
may  involve  a  mechanical  routine  of  very  poor  work.  The 
high  annual  turnover  in  the  personnel  of  the  teaching 
service  is  one  of  its  greatest  liabilities. 

The  state's  problem,  though,  is  to  provide  trained 
teachers  so  that  immaturity  and  inexperience  may  be  less 
characteristic  of  the  teaching  population.  For  if  the 
tenure  of  trained  teachers  is  longer  than  that  of  the  un- 
trained, both  of  these  injurious  factors  would  be  greatly 
reduced  through  adequate  provisions  for  training.  From 
1839  to  1850,  inclusive,  seven  normal  schools  in  the  United 
States  had  been  organized  by  the  states  to  provide  trained 
teachers  for  the  public  schools.  By  1870  this  number  had 
been  increased  to  seventy-five.  All  states  now  make 
appropriations  which  aim  to  place  competent  persons  in 
charge  of  the  schools.  The  data  given  earlier  in  this 
chapter  measure  the  failure  of  the  states  in  this  important 
activity. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the  influence  of  the 
normal  schools  in  the  development  of  the  profession  in 
America.  Often  handicapped  by  inadequate  financial  sup- 
port, the  normal  schools  have  been  responsible  for  send- 
ing into  the  elementary  schools  the  best  trained  teachers 
which  the  latter  have  received.  It  has  been  the  obligation 
and  privilege  of  the  normal  schools  to  foster  and  promote 
the  ideal  of  professional  training,  though  their  product 
has  been  submerged  in  most  states  by  the  vast  majority  of 
immature  and  relatively  untrained  teachers.  The  latter 
have  predominated  in  the  rural  schools  and  their  presence 

27)  N.  E.  A.  Emergency  Commission  Series  No.  4,  p.  4. 


A   SURVEY   OF   CONDITIONS  43 

constitutes  the  greatest  menace  to  the  economic  independ- 
ence of  the  profession. 

EDUCATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT    1870-1918 

Table  VII  shows  the  development  of  the  public  school 
system  in  the  United  States  as  compared  with  the  growth 
in  population  and  wealth.  It  shows,  too,  the  enrollments 
of  normal  schools,  high  schools  and  colleges.  The  Table 
uses  1890  as  the  basis  of  comparison.  Gains  have  been 
made  in  the  enrollment  in  normal  schools  and  in  the  num- 
ber of  graduates.  The  condition  of  the  schools  with  ref- 
erence to  trained  teachers  today  has  been  described.  The 
preparation  of  the  teachers  of  1870  with  the  meager  nor- 
mal school  courses  of  that  time  and  the  lack  of  public 
high  schools,  can  only  be  imagined.  The  wonderful  de- 
velopment in  national  wealth  in  the  past  decade  indicates 
that  the  resources  of  the  nation  will  be  adequate  for  its 
educational  needs  when  these  are  once  defined  and  under- 
stood. 

The  war  years  have  given  the  normal  schools  at  least  a 
temporary  check  in  their  efforts  to  gain  on  the  situation. 
The  fact  which  this  table  clearly  shows  is  that  the  enroll- 
ment in  high  schools,  colleges  and  universities  is  gaining 
much  more  rapidly  than  in  normal  schools.  When  the 
latter  were  organized,  they  offered  secondary  education 
to  large  numbers.  Now  there  is  a  tendency  for  students 
to  go  from  the  pubic  high  schools  to  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities directly,  leaving  the  normal  schools  with  unused 
facilities  though  the  need  for  trained  teachers  was  never 
greater.  Something  must  be  done  if  the  schools  are  to 
be  supplied  with  prepared  teachers,  and  to  lead  a  proper 
share  of  the  capable  students,  who  are  now  overcrowding 
the  colleges,  into  these  state  institutions  which  prepare 
for  so  important  a  branch  of  the  public  service. 


44      STATIC  MAINTENANCE;  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


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A   SURVEY  OF   COND[TIONS 


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46       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

The  normal  schools  encountered  the  same  tendencies 
and  influences  that  made  it  so  difficult  to  secure  and  hold 
competent  teachers  in  the  public  schools.  The  same  rea- 
sons have  reduced  the  attendance  in  these  institutions 
from  what  it  was  before  the  United  States  entered  the 
war ;  and  both  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  output  have 
been  seriously  affected.  About  18,000  graduates,  as  a 
maximum  annual  product,  have  gone  out  from  the  stand- 
ard teacher-training  schools  of  the  country. 

A  most  conservative  estimate  of  the  annual  needs  of 
the  schools  due  to  growth  of  population,  expansion  of 
school  activities,  and  replacements  needed  because  of 
death  and  resignation,  is  from  90,000  to  ioo,ooo,33  and 
during  the  war  period  it  was  much  larger.  Even  if  all  the 
beginning  teachers  who  have  had  any  special  professional 
training  in  normal  schools,  high  schools,  or  summer 
schools,  be  considered  as  qualified  for  their  work,  there 
still  remains  a  large  group  of  teachers  who  begin  their 
work  each  year  without  any  guaranty  of  success,  many  of 
whom  have  not  even  had  any  instruction  in  high  school.34 

The  state  has  an  obligation  to  define  the  educational 
and  professional  qualifications  of  those  who  desire  to 
teach  in  the  public  schools.  But  it  must  do  more  than  this. 
It  must  provide  opportunities  for  this  training  in  its  nor- 
mal schools,  colleges  of  education,  and  universities.  The 
average  annual  need  for  teachers  in  a  state  can  be  deter- 
mined from  reports;  and,  unless  an  equal  supply  is  pro- 
duced, the  schools  must  remain  closed  or  else  be  taught  by 
persons  of  inferior  preparation.  The  economic  necessi- 
ties of  these  unprepared  teachers  make  an  appeal  to  their 
parents  and  to  school  directors  because  the  latter  do  not 


33)  H    W.  Foght,  Preparation  of  Rural  Teachers,  N.  E.  A.   Pro- 
ceedings, 1915,  p.  102. 

34)  David  Felmley,   National  Crisis  in   Education,  U.   S.   Bureau 
of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  29,  1920,  p.  25. 


A   SURVEY  OF   CONDITIONS  47 

understand  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the  school  as  an  in- 
stitution. The  school  exists  primarily  for  the  benefit  of 
the  children  who  attend  it;  and  anything  which  thwarts 
this  purpose  directly  or  indirectly  should  demand  the 
immediate  attention  of  the  state. 

The  diminished  attendance  at  normal  schools  during 
the  years  1917-20,  with  few  exceptions,  makes  it  evident 
that  it  will  now  be  more  difficult  than  ever  before  to  se- 
cure an  adequate  supply  of  trained  teachers  from  that 
source.  In  the  normal  schools  of  New  York  State  after 
considerable  effort  and  with  a  generous  salary  law  enacted, 
an  increase  of  328  students  or  approximately  17%  over 
the  previous  year's  enrollment  was  noted  for  the  year 
1920-21.  In  one  of  these  schools  where  an  intensive 
campaign  for  recruits  was  conducted,  the  entering  class 
was  only  one-third  of  that  entering  in  1917.  Data  ob- 
tained from  seven  of  the  Pennsylvania  Normal  Schools 
showed  that  they  graduated  only  two-thirds  as  many 
teachers  in  1920  as  in  1917.  "One  hundred  and  ninety 
state,  county,  city  and  private  normal  schools  reported 
11,503  fewer  students  than  they  had  the  year  previous  to 
the  war.  The  schools  reporting  represent  60%  of  the 
total  normal  schools,  and  on  this  basis  it  is  estimated  that 
there  were  19,000  fewer  normal  students  and  7,000  fewer 
graduates  from  normal  schools  in  1920.  Teachers'  train- 
ing courses  in  college  show  the  same  falling  off,  and  the 
loss  of  students  in  some  state  normal  schools  indicates  a 
shrinkage  in  students  of  20,  30,  and  as  high  as  50  per 
cent."35  The  most  significant  fact  was  that  at  the  same 
time  the  colleges  and  universities  were  crowded  with 
the  largest  enrollment  in  their  history. 

The  differences  in  drawing  power  of  institutions  which 
require  the  same  preliminary  preparation  for  entrance 

35)  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  for  year  ended  June 
30,  1920. 


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A  SURVEY  OF  CONDITIONS 


49 


TABLE  IX. 


INCREASE  IN   UNIVERSITY  ENROLLMENT   IN   FIVE  YEARS. 

1915-192038 


November  i,  1915     November  i,  1920 

California 

10,555 

16,379 

Chicago 

7,968 

",394 

Cincinnati 

2,525 

3,523 

Columbia 

11,888 

23,793 

Cornell 

6,35i 

7,349 

Harvard 

5,698 

7,786 

Illinois 

6,150 

9,652 

Indiana 

2,347 

3,585 

Iowa 

3,138 

3,585 

Johns  Hopkins 

1,586 

3,203 

Kansas 

2,806 

4,036 

Michigan 

6,684 

10,158 

Minnesota 

5,376 

9,565 

Nebraska 

3,356 

5,730 

New  York 

6,656 

10,522 

Northwestern 

4,408 

7,567 

Ohio  State 

5,45i 

7,799 

Pennsylvania 

7,404 

io,579 

Pittsburgh 

3,569 

5,904 

Stanford 

2,061 

3,134 

Texas 

3,572 

5,152 

Virginia 

i,  008 

3,409 

Wisconsin 

6,810 

9,5o6 

Washington 

1,264 

2,502 

Yale 

3,303 

3,896 

Total 

121,933 

191,376 

Gain 

69443=56+% 

38)  School  and  Society,  January  29,  1921,  p.  121. 


50       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

indicate  that  something  needs  to  be  done  by  the  state  and 
by  society  if  the  demand  for  prepared  teachers  is  to  be 
satisfied.  The  impression  is  prevalent  that  students  of 
superior  ability  are  avoiding  the  normal  schools  in  order 
to  attend  the  institutions  that  apparently  offer  greater 
promise  in  economic  outlook  and  a  greater  variety  of 
professional  choice.  Several  tests  have  been  made  to  de- 
termine the  relative  ability  of  students  in  the  two  types  of 
institutions.  Table  X  shows  the  results  of  the  intelligence 
test  prepared  by  the  Carnegie  School  of  Technology, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  given  to  the  freshmen  in  eleven  col- 
leges and  seven  normal  schools  in  Pennsylvania  in  1919. 
The  median  difference  of  13  in  favor  of  the  college  stu- 
dents is  suggestive. 

Table  XI  shows  the  results  obtained  from  applying  the 
Army  Alpha  test  to  the  students  in  several  normal  schools 
and  universities.  Measured  by  the  army  standards  both 
groups  are  superior  but  a  difference  of  16.4  in  the  median 
score  in  favor  of  the  college  group  confirms  the  notion 
that  the  colleges  and  universities  are  drawing  the  best 
ability.  This  difference  is  equivalent  to  six  or  seven 
months  of  mental  age  on  the  Stanford-Binet  scale.  The 
results  of  these  tests  in  typical  and  widely  scattered  insti- 
tutions is  an  evidence  of  the  need  for  additional  induce- 
ments in  order  to  attract  ability  of  the  highest  grade  into 
the  teaching  profession. 

In  attempting  to  provide  a  trained  teacher  for  every 
school,  it  is  important  to  inquire  what  kind  of  people  are 
choosing  the  teaching  profession.  What  ability  do  those 
possess  who  decide  to  teach?  What  economic  conditions 
surround  them?  What  can  they  afford  in  the  nature  of 
an  extensive  preparation  for  teaching?  These  questions 
were  answered  in  1911  by  Coffman's  Study  of  the  Social 
Composition  of  the  Teaching  Population.  He  found  that 


A  SURVEY  Of   CONDITIONS 


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52       STATE  MAINTENANCE  Otf  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


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A  SURVEY  Of  CONDITIONS 


53 


TABLE     XI.       COMPARISON     OF     ABILITY     OF     FRESHMEN     IN 
££HOOLS    AND    UNIVERSITIES    AS    MEASURED   BY 
THE  ARMY  ALPHA  TESTS. 


NORMAL 


Army  Rating. 

A 

135-212 

Very  Superior 

B 

105-134 

Superior 

C— 

75-104 

High  Average 

C 

45-  74 

Average 

C— 

25-  44 

Low  Average 

D 

15-  24 

Inferior 

D— 

o-  14 

Very  Inferior 

Normal  Schools 

Cases 

Median  Score 

I.    Cape  Girardeau, 

Mo.            448 

113-6 

2.    Greeley,    Col. 

1  02 

116.6 

3.    Bloomsburg,  Pa. 

(2d  year)  138 

113.19 

4.    Mankato,  Minn. 

39 

H3-75 

All  Normal  Students                  727 

1  13-6 

Universities 

Yale 

406 

159 

Illinois 

489 

147 

Purdue 

588 

124 

Southern  Methodist                      128 

127 

Ohio  State 

2,545 

130 

Arkansas 

52 

Dickinson 

72 

141 

University  Freshmen 

4,280 

130 

54       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


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A   SURVEY  OF   CONDITIONS  55 

the  typical  teacher  comes  from  a  home  whose  annual  in- 
come was  approximately  $800.00  which  supported  a  family 
of  six  or  seven  members.40  How  can  prospective  teachers 
with  such  a  background  pay  the  cost  of  adequate  training? 
The  cost  of  preparation  has  increased  in  proportion  to  the 
increase  in  the  cost  of  living  while  salaries  have  advanced 
in  a  smaller  degree. 

These  facts  have  combined  to  prevent  prospective  teach- 
ers from  securing  the  necessary  preparation  for  their  work 
so  that  the  children  are  suffering  the  consequences  of 
economic  and  social  evils  from  which  they  should  be  pro- 
tected. Is  it  not  time  that  an  indifferent  and  careless 
policy  in  the  matter  of  teacher  training  be  abandoned? 

COST  OF  NORMAL  TRAINING 

Late  in  the  school  year  1919-20,  typical  normal  schools 
were  selected  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan, 
Texas,  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  Illinois  and  New  Jersey  in 
order  to  secure  from  the  students  themselves  an  estimate 
of  expenses  covering  room,  board,  laundry,  clothing,  trav- 
eling expenses,  and  fees,  but  no  other  personal  incidentals. 
The  principal  was  requested  to  select  twenty  seniors  at 
random  in  order  to  secure  representative  estimates.  One 
hundred  sixty-five  reports  reveal  the  fact  that  expenses 
range  from  $300.00  to  $1000  and  that  the  general  aver- 
average  is  $470.43.  This  means  an  investment  of  over 
$900.00  in  a  two-year  course  or  $1800.00  in  a  four-year 
course.  This  expense  will  vary  somewhat  with  changing 
prices  but  it  is  a  fair  record  of  the  extreme  conditions 
which  prevailed  in  the  year  in  which  the  data  were  col- 
lected. 

As  has  been  shown  these  costs  are  prohibitive  for 
teachers  in  the  rural  schools  where  salaries  are  lowest  and 


40)  Contributions    to    Education,    Columbia    University,    No.    41, 
p.   80. 


56       STATE  MAINTENANCE  Of  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

school  terms  the  shortest.  The  vital  problem  is  to  get  a 
superior  training  for  these  thousands  of  rural  teachers  in 
order  that  they  may  be  worthy  of  a  salary  commensurate 
with  the  importance  of  the  task  they  are  willing  to  attempt. 
Can  America  not  profit  by  the  experience  of  those  coun- 
tries of  the  world  where  this  difficulty  has  been  overcome 
to  the  extent  that  a  large  percentage  of  their  teacher-:  are 
genuine  professionally  trained  men  and  women.41 

ADDITIONAL  AID  DESIRABLE 

Everything  that  any  state  has  done  financially  to  pro- 
mote the  training  of  teachers  may  be  considered  in  the 
nature  of  a  subsidy  to  the  profession.  The  important 
question  is  whether  the  state  can  afford  to  restrict  its 
activity  in  rendering  aid  to  prospective  teachers  before 
every  school  enjoys  the  privilege  of  employing  a  trained 
teacher.  It  is  good  business  to  add  to  the  capital  in- 
vestment in  order  to  increase  the  dividends ;  it  is  wise 
public  policy  to  prevent  ignorance  and  inefficiency  and  to 
provide  equal  opportunity  to  all  the  children  of  the  state. 
In  order  to  have  a  trained  teacher  in  every  school,  more 
recruits  must  be  secured  for  the  profession  of  teaching, 
more  training  must  be  furnished  before  the  difficult  task 
is  undertaken,  and  teachers  must  be  paid  a  living  wage 
for  their  work.  These  desirable  goals  are  within  the 
scope  of  the  state's  activities  and  unless  the  state  acts 
to  protect  and  promote  its  own  system  of  free  schools, 
there  is  little  hope  for  improvement.  Even  so  long  ago  as 
1907,  J.  M.  Green,  principal  of  the  Trenton  Normal 
School  said :  "I  have  no  fault  with  the  high  standards  for 
teaching.  I  hail  and  welcome  them,  but  I  believe  if  they 
are  maintained,  education  must  thoroughly  promulgate  its 
economic  requirements.  These  must  be  acknowledged 
and  met  by  the  people,  both  by  increasing  salaries  and  by 

41)  See  New  South  Wales,  Japan,  Germany,  Denmark,  Chapter 
III. 


A  SURVEY  OF  CONDITIONS  57 

further  decreasing  the  cost  of  higher  education  for  teach- 
ers by  additional  state  aid."42 

As  an  indication  of  the  growing  interest  in  this  phase 
of  the  problem,  it  is  pertinent  to  state  that  at  the  meeting 
of  the  Association  of  Academic  Principals  of  New  York 
State  in  December,  1919,  a  resolution  was  adopted  urging 
additional  state  subsidies  for  prospective  teachers.  Sec- 
tion XII  of  the  Sterling-Towner  Bill  now  before  Con- 
gress, proposes  the  appropriation  of  $15,000,000  "to  en- 
courage the  states  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  pub- 
lic school  service,  particularly  in  rural  schools,  to  provide 
and  extend  facilities  for  the  improvement  of  prospective 
teachers,  and  to  provide  an  increased  number  of  trained 
and  competent  teachers  by  encouraging  through  the  es- 
tablishment of  scholarships  and  otherwise,  a  greater  num- 
ber of  talented  young  people  to  make  adequate  preparation 
for  public  school  service." 

At  the  National  Citizens  Conference  on  Education  held 
in  Washington,  D.  C.,  May,  1920,  it  was  resolved  that 
"since  the  teachers  of  America  come  so  largely  from 
homes  that  are  economically  unable  to  bear  the  expenses 
of  the  education  of  their  sons  and  daughters,  it  may  be 
necessary,  in  order  to  secure  the  best  quality  of  candidates 
for  the  teaching  profession,  that  the  living  expenses  of 
teachers  in  training  will  need  to  be.  met  by  the  state,  either 
through  scholarships  or  by  means  of  a  loan  zvhich  may  be 
paid  in  part  or  entirely  by  actual  service,  in  teaching  fol- 
lowing graduation."43 

There  is  no  doubt  that  one  of  the  most  serious  defects 
in  the  educational  system  today  is  the  incompetent  teacher. 
If  this  problem  were  solved  the  conditions  in  more  than 
$0%  of  the  schools  would  be  radically  improved,  and  the 

42)  N.  E.  A.  Proceedings,  1907,  p.  370. 

43)  U.    S.    Bureau    of    Education,    Bulletin    No.    29,    1920,    p.    131; 
italics   mine. 


58       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OP  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

question  as  to  what  is  the  matter  with  public  education 
could  no  longer  be  asked  with  the  same  implications  and 
emphasis. 

SUMMARY 

1.  The  public  school  has  been  able  to  adjust  itself  to 
new  demands  and  conditions.    A  remarkable  world-wide 
state  of  unrest  and  change  as  a  result  of  the  war  has 
already  influenced  education  and  will  continue  to  do  so. 

2.  A  study  of  the  members  of  the  teaching  service  in 
typical  states  shows  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  teach- 
ers, especially  in  the  rural  districts,  are  inadequately  pre- 
pared for  the  duties  of  the  profession. 

3.  The  statistics  of  the  enrollment  in  high  schools, 
colleges  and  universities,  and  normal  schools  show  that 
the  profession  of  teaching  is  not  attracting  a  sufficient 
number  of  recruits.     It  is  significant  that  the  numbers 
seeking  higher  education  for  other  vocations  are  rapidly 
increasing. 

4.  Inadequate  attendance   in  normal   schools   is   also 
accompanied  by  the  admission  of  students  of  somewhat 
inferior  ability  as  compared  with  those  entering  universi- 
ties and  colleges. 

5.  The  cost  of  normal  school  education  is  too  great 
compared  with  the  salaries  of  many  rural   teachers   to 
justify  the  expense  of  adequate  preparation. 

6.  Educational  organizations  are  suggesting  in  reso- 
lutions and  proposed  legislation  additional  state  assistance 
to  prospective  teachers  as  one  of  the  potent  remedies  for 
the  situation. 


CHAPTER  III 

PLANS   FOR  RECRUITING  THE   PROFESSION 
THROUGH  FINANCIAL  ASSISTANCE1 

One  of  the  essential  activities  of  state  educational  ad- 
ministration is  that  which  relates  to  the  preparation  of 
teachers.  An  annual  supply  of  new  teachers  is  necessary 
to  fill  the  vacancies  in  10%  to  30%  of  the  schools,  as 
shown  in  the  representative  states  described  in  Chapter  I. 
Unless  the  state  concerns  itself  with  the  preparation  of 
these  required  teachers,  what  agency  will?  The  alterna- 
tive presented  is  to  fill  up  these  schools  with  the  candidates 
who  apply,  allowing-  their  preparation  to  be  determined 
by  chance  factors.  The  interests  of  the  children  are  so 
vital  that  the  latter  policy  is  unwarranted  in  a  responsible 
government. 

In  their  efforts  to  meet  the  demand  for  better  teachers, 
the  states  have  had  a  varying  experience.  To  supply  the 
shortage  of  teachers  which  some  states  have  felt  more 
keenly  than  others,  several  experiments  to  aid  financially 
in  the  preparation  of  teachers  have  been  made.  What 
progress  has  been  made  by  any  state  in  this  endeavor? 
What  are  the  conditions  in  state  systems  of  education  that 
should  be  modified  in  order  to  provide  competent  teach- 
ers for  every  child?  These  are  questions  that  need  to  be 
answered  before  any  suggestions  can  be  made,  based 
upon  either  theory  or  practice. 

A.      IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Free  schools  on  both  the  elementary  and  secondary 
levels  are  now  so  nearly  universal  that  it  is  difficult  to 
realize  that  this  is  comparatively  a  recent  achievement. 

1)  See  Appendix  B. 

59 


6o       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

It  is  now  possible  for  thousands  of  American  youth  to 
pursue  their  studies  through  the  university  practically 
without  personal  charge  for  tuition.  State  maintained 
institutions  generally  are  free  to  the  residents  of  that 
state  and  in  harmony  with  that  policy  the  state  normal 
schools  make  no  charge  for  instruction.  In  this  respect 
the  prospective  teacher  has  no  advantage  from  the  state 
over  individuals  preparing  for  many  other  occupations. 
There  is  but  slight  opposition  to  this  policy  of  offering 
the  widest  possible  range  of  training  at  public  expense, 
but  the  teacher  will  be  an  employee  of  the  state  and,  there- 
fore, the  interest  of  the  state  in  the  efficacy  of  his  train- 
ing is  greater  than  it  is  in  training  for  many  other  fields 
of  activity. 

Transportation  is  one  of  the  costly  items  for  prospec- 
tive teachers  in  states  where  the  distances  are  great  and 
the  institutions  few.  Very  little  has  been  done  by  the 
states  in  striving  to  meet  this  situation.  In  Wyoming 
railroad  fares  in  excess  of  $10.00  are  paid  by  the  state 
to  the  students  in  the  teacher-training  department  of  the 
State  University.  Montana  refunds  all  transportation  in 
excess  of  $5.00.  New  Mexico  pays  all  above  $3.00  round 
trip  and  Rhode  Island  makes  an  appropriation  to  cover 
all  transportation. 

In  fifteen  states,  free  textbooks  are  supplied  to  the  stu- 
dents who  are  preparing  to  teach.2  In  a  few  cases  books 
may  be  rented  at  a  low  charge  and  in  New  Hampshire 
and  Massachusetts  supplies  are  furnished.  In  many 
states  individual  schools  are  found  which  maintain  loan 
funds  for  emergency  cases  among  the  students.  These 
funds  are  usually  maintained  by  gifts  from  the  classes,  by 
contributions  from  alumni  and  faculty,  or  by  private 
philanthropy.  In  the  Louisiana  State  Normal  School  at 

2)  See  Appendix  A. 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  THE  PROFESSION  6l 

Natchitoches,  money  available  for  this  purpose  amounts  to 
$20,000.00  in  several  funds.  In  Massachusetts,  the  legis- 
ture  appropriates  $4,000.00  per  year  which  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  transportation  of  needy  students,  $30.00  or 
$40.00  to  each.  In  many  schools  where  no  such  fund 
exists,  special  cases  are  taken  care  of  by  members  of  the 
faculty  or  by  local  organizations.  Many  worthy  young 
people  who  would  otherwise  have  been  lost  to  the  pro- 
fession, have  thus  been  aided. 

Several  states  have  attempted  the  experiment  of  offer- 
ing scholarships  in  order  to  secure  a  sufficient  supply  of 
teachers.  In  Connecticut  in  addition  to  free  tuition,  an- 
nual scholarships  of  $150.00  for  each  student  have  been 
available  for  a  number  of  years,  on  condition  that  the 
graduates  teach  three  years  in  the  rural  schools.  Out 
of  loo  scholarships  available  only  sixteen  were  called  for 
in  the  year  1920-21.  The  salaries  and  living  conditions  in 
the  country  were  so  unattractive  that  the  experiment  was 
almost  nullified.  It  has  been  proposed  that  this  scholar- 
ship be  raised  to  $300.00  to  make  it  effective.  Louisiana 
has  a  plan  by  which  each  police  jury  of  the  state  and  each 
ward  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  may  designate  one  fe- 
male student  to  the  normal  school,  whose  support,  not 
exceeding  $250.00  per  year,  may  be  charged  against  the 
police  jury  or  ward.  The  beneficiaries  are  appointed  on 
the  basis  of  competitive  examinations  from  among  needy 
persons.  Less  than  50%  of  the  districts  are  represented, 
— largely,  no  doubt,  because  of  the  stigma  of  poverty  that 
attaches  to  the  subsidy. 

In  1920  the  State  Education  Department  of  Delaware 
selected  certain  students  from  those  desiring  teacher- 
training  work  and  granted  them  scholarships  of  $150.00 
per  year.  As  a  modification  of  this  plan  the  department 
suggests  that  all  expenses  of  those  qualified  to  train  for 


62       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

elementary  work  be  paid.  The  law  also  allows  liberal 
support  for  the  teachers  who  take  work  in  summer  schools 
to  improve  their  efficiency  in  service. 

In  Maryland  the  legislature  of  1920  so  increased  the 
appropriation  to  the  normal  schools  that  the  net  cost  of 
board,  laundry,  books,  tuition,  and  other  necessary  items 
to  each  student  was  only  $100.00  a  year.  Any  high 
school  graduate  who  pledged  two  years'  service  was  ad- 
mitted on  these  terms.  The  governor  has  assented  to  the 
policy  of  relieving  all  teacher-training  students  entirely 
from  the  costs  of  maintenance  and  the  State  Board  of 
Education  will  have  the  opportunity  to  work  out  the  de- 
tails in  future  legislation.  The  county  boards  of  educa- 
tion have  been  required  by  law  for  years  to  pay  $25.00  to 
any  teacher  who  attends  summer  school. 

The  Normal  Board  of  Regents  in  Texas  offers  scholar- 
ships to  the  honor  students  among  the  boys  and  among 
the  girls  in  each  fully  affiliated  high  school  of  the  state. 
This  scholarship  exempts  the  students  from  paying  fees 
and  as  they  may  also  receive  scholarships  in  the  colleges 
and  state  university,  very  few  enter  the  normal  schools 
on  this  basis.  At  Huntsville,  Texas,  only  five  honor  stu- 
dents were  enrolled  in  1919-20  and  four  in  1920-21.  A 
scholarship  worth  $100.00  is  open  for  students  from  ju- 
nior and  senior  colleges.  Several  scholarships  worth 
$200.00  or  $250.00  are  offered  by  alumni  and  other  indi- 
viduals. The  experience  in  Texas  and  in  other  states  shows 
that  students  prefer  to  go  to  college  rather  than  to  normal 
schools  when  the  scholarships  are  equal  or  when  the 
larger  subsidy  is  granted  for  college  attendance. 

In  order  to  make  a  special  provision  for  rural  teachers 
in  New  Mexico,  there  are  chosen  annually  fifty  teachers 
who  possess  ability  to  read  and  write  both  English  and 
Spanish,  who  have  taught  for  ten  months  on  a  third-grade 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  THE  PROFESSION  63 

certificate,  and  who  are  between  eighteen  and  twenty-five 
years  of  age.  These  teachers  pledge  themselves  to  teach 
two  years  in  rural  districts  after  completing  a  prescribed 
one-year  course.  When  they  finish  the  course  in  the  nor- 
mal schools,  they  receive  a  second-grade  certificate  good 
for  the  two  ensuing  years.  From  a  special  state  appro- 
priation $300.00  is  paid  to  the  normal  school  of  his  choice 
for  each  teacher,  selected  for  this  rural  course.  This 
grant  pays  actual  and  necessary  expenses  for  board,  books 
and  school  supplies,  lodging,  matriculation  and  tuition. 
The  law  provides  that  the  amount  allowed  to  each  student 
shall  not  be  less  than  $20.00  per  month  for  board  and 
lodging  and  that  any  balance  in  the  fund  shall  become 
part  of  the  maintenance  fund  in  that  institution.  This 
plan  has  several  weaknesses.  The  number  is  inadequate 
for  the  whole  state  and  the  preliminary  training  of  such 
scholarship  students  should  be  graduation  from  the  four- 
year  high  school  course.  Principal  W.  O.  Hall,  of  the 
Silver  City  Normal  School  said  of  these  students  that 
they  were  superior  in  responsibility  and  in  diligence  in 
their  work  though  no  superiority  was  noted  in  its  quality. 
New  Mexico  realized  her  need  for  trained  teachers  and 
began  a  plan  which  makes  progress  possible.  Along  with 
this  state  assistance  a  law  has  been  passed  requiring  that 
rural  school  districts  should  spend  not  more  than  $70.00 
a  month  for  a  teacher  holding  a  third-grade  certificate, 
$90.00  for  one  holding  a  second-grade  certificate  and 
$110.00  for  one  holding  a  first-grade  certificate.3  Ex- 
State  Superintendent  Wagner  said  that  salaries  for  the 
year  1919-20  under  this  law  were  advanced  30%  or  40% 
Hence  state  subsidy  in  this  case  did  not  prevent  increase 
in  salary. 

3)  Act  to  provide  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  for  Rural   Dis- 
tricts, approved  March   18,   1915. 


64       STATE)  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

The  state  of  Maine,  in  order  to  establish  a  rural  teach- 
ing profession  passed  an  act4  which  provided  for  the 
selection  of  one  hundred  rural  teachers  annually  who 
have  had  a  complete  normal  school  training  or  its 
equivalent  and  successful  teaching  experience,  and  who 
are  persons  of  unusual  ability  and  sympathetic  with  rural 
life  and  work.  These  persons  were  to  attend  a  special 
course  of  instruction  during  the  summer  months,  the  ex- 
pense of  travel  and  board  being  provided  by  the  state. 
They  were  then  to  return  to  the  service  of  the  town  from 
which  they  were  chosen  for  at  least  one  year,  during 
which  they  were  to  act  as  rural  critic  and  helping  teachers. 
At  the  close  of  tlWichool  year,  upon  satisfactory  evi- 
dence of  successful  service,  the  teachers  were  to  receive 
from  the  state  a  bonus  of  25%  of  their  regular  annual 
salary.  State  Superintendent  A.  O.  Thomas  said,5  "The 
problem  is  so  to  motivate  the  rural  phase  of  education  that 
it  will  attract  the  brightest  minds  and  the  finest  person- 
alities of  the  profession.  Dignity,  wage  and  service  are 
all  essential."  An  annual  appropriation  of  $20,000.00  is 
devoted  to  this  work.  To  accomplish  the  purpose  indi- 
cated, the  state  decided  to  pay  for  additional  training 
and  to  pay  for  the  superior  service  rendered. 

The  need  for  expert  teachers  of  trade,  industrial,  and 
technical  subjects  in  the  public  vocational  schools  led  the 
state  of  New  York  to  pass  a  law  in  I9I9,6  providing  an- 
nually for  twenty-five  scholarships  at  the  Buffalo  State 
Normal  School  in  a  one-year  industrial  teacher-training 
course.  Persons  completing  the  course  are  licensed  for 
life  to  teach  their  special  trade,  industrial,  or  technical 
occupation.  The  law  provides  that  persons  chosen  for 

4)  An  Act  to  provide  for  the  Training  of  Rural  Teachers,  Chap- 

ter 51,   P.  L.   1919. 

5)  Circular    letter:    Special    Training    for    Rural    Teachers,    May 

15,   1919. 

6)  Section   835       New  York   Education  Law,  1919. 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  THE  PROFESSION  65 

these  scholarships  shall  receive  $1500,00  if  they  are  with- 
out dependents,  or  $2000.00  with  dependents.  These 
amounts  are  paid  in  ten  equal  installments. 

The  law  requires  that  each  of  these  men  must  have  had 
not  less  than  five  years'  practical  experience  in  one  of  the 
thirteen  occupations  listed.  Candidates  must  be  not  less 
than  twenty-one  nor  more  than  thirty-six  years  old.  Good 
health,  moral  character,  citizenship,  residence  in  New 
York,  and  ability  to  read,  write,  and  speak  English  were 
additional  requirements.  Salaries  paid  in  1920  to  such 
teachers  in  New  York  ranged  from  $1800.00  to  $3500.00. 
L.  A.  Wilson,  Director  of  Industrial  Education,  writes 
that  the  state  has  been  able  to  select  some  very  strong 
men  for  these  scholarships.7 

This  plan  shows  what  a  state  feels  justified  in  doing 
to  fill  a  serious  need  in  a  definite  department  of  the  work. 
It  also  shows  that  scholarships  and  relatively  high  sal- 
aries after  the  training  are  not  inconsistent  with  one  an- 
other. When  the  soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines  came 
back  to  civil  life  after  the  war,  several  states,  including 
Oregon,  Wisconsin,  and  New  York,  passed  acts  provid- 
ing scholarships  in  higher  institutions.  The  New  York 
law  provided  for  450  such  state  scholarships.  Each  en- 
titled the  holder  to  his  tuition,  not  exceeding  $100.00  per 
year,  in  any  college,  university,  normal  school,  technical 
or  trade  school  of  his  selection,  located  within  the  state, 
such  tuition  to  be  paid  by  the  state,  together  with  an  ad- 
ditional sum  of  $100.00  a  year  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
student  while  in  attendance  upon  instruction.8  Thirty 
thousand  dollars  was  appropriated  by  the  legislature  to 
carry  out  this  act. 

7)  Personal  letter,  October  20,   1920. 

8)  Section  78,  Article  3,  Education  I^w,  New  York  State,  1919, 


66     STATE  MAINTENANCE;  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

B.    IN  AMERICAN  CITIES. 

More  than  thirty  cities  reported  to  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  in  1918  that  they  were  maintaining 
training  schools  for  teachers  to  supply  at  least  a  part  of 
the  annual  demand.  According  to  a  bulletin  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  in  1914,  a  number 
of  such  cities  were  paying  various  sums  of  money  to 
these  prospective  teachers  for  the  time  spent  in  actual 
practice  teaching.9  In  1920  in  New  York  City  this  pay- 
ment was  $2.00  a  day;  in  Baltimore  $1.50  a  day;  in  Wa- 
tertown,  N.  Y.,  it  was  $3.00  a  week.  In  Akron,  Ohio,  the 
training  school  was  not  getting  a  sufficient  supply  of  the 
capable  high  school  graduates  of  the  city.  The  population 
had  increased  very  rapidly,  and  the  Board  of  Education 
decided  to  pay  the  normal  school  students  at  the  rate  of 
$50.00  per  month  for  the  two  years  of  training.  The 
number  of  students  was  limited  to  the  capacity  of  the 
school  and  a  competitive  examination  enabled  the  officials 
to  select  from  the  students  possessing  the  best  ability. 
Superintendent  H.  B.  Fisher,  of  Streator,  Illinois,  wrote10 
en  October  30,  1920:  "We  are  this  year  trying  the  experi- 
ment of  giving  aid  amounting  to  $150.00  a  year  to  a  few 
graduates  of  the  local  high  school  who  are  in  attendance 
upon  one  of  the  state  normal  schools.  This  aid  is  to  be 
given  each  year  for  two  years.  Each  recipient  of  this 
aid,  each  year,  gives  one  note  for  $100.00  and  another  for 
$50.00.  For  each  year  that  she  teaches  in  the  Streator 
schools  a  note  or  notes  amounting  to  $100.00  are  can- 
celled. No  interest  is  payable  until  after  maturity  of  the 
note,  which  is  set  at  a  point  three  years  after  the  com- 
pletion of  her  normal  training."  The  beginning  salary 


9)  Bulletin  47,  City  Training  Schools,  Frank  Manny,   1914,  Ap- 

pendix E.   U.   S.   Bureau   of  Education. 

10)  Letter  to  Carnegie  Foundation,  N.  Y. 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  THE  PROFESSION  67 

of  these  graduates  is  $1,000.00  with  an  annual  increase 
of  $75.00. 

Cities  have  done  more  to  encourage  teachers  to  im- 
prove themselves  in  service  than  have  other  school  dis- 
tricts, because  they  have  had  the  best  trained  and  more 
ambitious  group  of  teachers  in  the  past  and  consequently 
appreciate  the  value  of  training,  and  because  they  have 
the  taxable  wealth,  and  are  more  likely  to  receive  large 
bequests  or  benefactions.  Indianapolis  and  Pittsburgh, 
for  example,  have  the  Gregg  Fund  and  Frick  Fund,  re- 
spectively. Teachers  in  both  cities  are  furnished  schol- 
arships at  educational  institutions  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. Some  of  these  scholarships  have  aided  teachers  to 
make  journeys  to  foreign  lands  in  order  to  gain  various 
advantages  for  their  particular  work.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  administration  of  the  Frick  Fund,  the  commission 
paid  the  entire  expense  of  the  teachers  who  were  sent 
away.  Later  on  it  paid  two-thirds  of  their  expenses,  and 
thus  was  enabled  to  send  a  much  larger  number  of  teach- 
ers. It  has  been  found  in  many  cases  that  the  teachers 
who  were  sent  once  felt  themselves  so  much  benefited  by 
their  visits  that  they  subsequently  undertook  additional 
training  at  their  own  expense.11 

TABLE  xn.     HENRY  c.  FRICK  EDUCATIONAL  COMMISSION, 

PITTSBURGH,   PENNSYLVANIA. 

Summary  of  Aid  to  Teachers 

Number  of  teachers  who  have  received  scholarships IS11 

Number  of  teachers  who  have  received  training  in  Social 
Service  work  3J9 

Number  of  teachers  who  have  received  training  in  Ameri- 
canization work  at  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  during 
winters  of  1918-1919  and  1919-1920  to  date 256 

Number  of  teachers  sent  to  educational  conferences  and  to 


11)  Year  Book  of  Phoebe  Brashear  Club,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,   1917, 
p.  13. 


68     STATE  MAINTENANCE;  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

educational    institutions    for    observation    and    study    of 
methods 30 


Number  of  teachers  benefited  by  the  Hency  C.  Frick  Educa- 
tional Commission  fund  2116 

Number  of  different  schools  attended  by  the  teachers  since 
the  establishment  of  the  fund    61 

Until  the  death  of  Mr.  Frick,  this  endowment  fund 
consisted  of  the  interest  upon  $500,000.00^  In  his  will 
he  left  the  Educational  Commission  ten  shares  of  his  re- 
siduary estate,  which  he  estimated  at  $500,000.00  a  share. 
The  future  training  of  selected  groups  of  Pittsburgh 
teachers  has  consequently  been  placed  upon  a  very  solid 
foundation. 

Many  other  cities  according  to  the  reports  of  the  city 
superintendents  grant  permanent  increases  in  salary  to 
those  teachers  who  are  ambitious  enough  to  attend  sum- 
mer school  at  their  own  expense.  In  others  a  definite 
appropriation  of  $25.00  or  $50.00  is  made  toward  the 
expense  of  teachers  attending  summer  sessions. 

C.      IN  CANADA. 

In  the  Province  of  Quebec  in  1920,  all  Protestant 
teachers  in  training  at  Macdonald  College  received  tuition 
free  and  those  who  agreed  to  teach  three  years  in  the 
rural  schools,  received  a  bonus  that  covered  a  consider- 
able part  of  their  boarding  and  other  expenses.  At  the 
Roman  Catholic  Normal  Schools,  the  government  is  also 
providing  free  scholarships  for  students  who  could  not 
afford  to  put  themselves  through.12  In  British  Columbia 
and  Ontario  the  traveling  expenses  of  normal  school  stu 
dents  are  paid,  while  in  Ontario  only,  $1.00  per  day  is 
paid  toward  their  living  expenses  if  they  have  promised 
to  teach  for  three  years  in  rural  schools. 

In  May  and  June  of  1919  a  survey  of  the  secondary 
schools  in  the  Province  of  Alberta  was  made  to  ascertain 


12)  Personal  letter  from  Superintendent's  Office,  June   14,   1920. 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  TH£  PROFESSION  69 

the  probable  enrollment  at  the  normal  school  in  Septem- 
ber.13 It  was  found  that  a  number  of  students  were  likely 
to  be  debarred  from  entering  the  teaching  profession  be- 
cause of  the  increased  cost  of  living  away  from  home,  and 
because  of  the  lengthened  course.  The  government  then 
adopted  the  policy  of  extending  its  loan  scheme,  created 
for  returned  soldiers  in  1918,  to  all  persons  who  wished 
to  qualify  as  teachers  and  who  would  promise  to  teach 
two  years  in  Alberta.  The  maximum  sum  loaned  to  any 
person  was  $400.00  payable  in  eight  equal  instalments. 
Notes  bearing  "j%  interest  were  drawn  up  and  signed  by 
guarantors.  In  the  year  1919-20  approximately  $28,000.- 
oo  was  loaned  to  students. 

Under  this  plan  an  appropriation  forms  a  revolving 
fund  and  continues  to  assist  in  the  training  of  teachers 
indefinitely.  It  renders  aid  to  those  who  need  it  and  se- 
cures a  group  of  trained  teachers  who,  without  such  aid, 
would  be  compelled  to  begin  remunerative  work  in  other 
occupations. 

D.      IN  LATIN-AMERICA.14 

In  Brazil,  Argentina,  Chile,  and  other  Latin-American 
countries,  the  great  majority  of  the  normal  schools  are 
on  the  secondary  level  and  admit  pupils  at  the  age  of  14, 
after  they  have  finished  a  six-year  or  seven-year  elemen- 
tary course.  These  institutions  were  introduced  and  fos- 
tered by  the  governments  and  were  organized  on  the 
same  plan  as  are  military  schools.  The  pupils  are  edu- 
cated, clothed,  fed,  and  trained  at  state  expense  for  a 
specific  public  service.  In  return  for  this  aid,  the  pupil 
contracts  with  the  government,  with  the  consent  of  par- 
ent or  guardian,  and  furnishes  a  bond  that  he  will  serve 

13)  Personal    letter,    G.    Fred    McNally,    Supervisor    of    Schools, 
Nov.  17,  1920. 

14)  U.    S.    Bureau    of   Education,    Bulletin    No.    30,    1912,    Latin- 
American  Universities  and  Special  Schools,  E.  E.  Brandon. 


70       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

as  a  primary  teacher  during  a  fixed  number  of  years 
(varying  from  four  to  six)  in  whatever  school  assigned, 
or  reimburse  the  state  for  the  expense  incurred  in  his 
training. 

The  scholarships  are  distributed  among  the  administra- 
tive units  of  the  district  where  the  normal  school  is  lo- 
cated and  are  awarded  on  competitive  examination.  In 
the  early  days  all  pupils  were  state  scholars.  Now  young 
people  living  near  the  schools  take  advantage  of  their 
opportunities.  For  such  the  instruction  is  free  or  the 
expense  is  merely  nominal. 

So  marked  is  the  discrepancy  between  remuneration  in 
commercial  and  industrial  pursuits  on  the  one  hand  and 
teaching  on  the  other  that  men  have  all  but  disappeared 
from  the  profession  of  primary  teaching.  Where  former- 
ly there  was  a  host  of  candidates  for  every  vacant  scholar- 
ship, there  are  now  districts  where  no  men  candidates 
apply.  These  conditions  are  found  under  all  circum- 
stances and  in  all  continents  and  can  be  ascribed  in  large 
part  to  the  unprecedented  industrial  advance  of  the  age. 
This  experience  shows  that  a  subsidy  plan  will  not  supply 
teachers  if  a  living  wage  is  not  paid  to  the  skilled  worker. 

The  Province  of  Entre  Rios  in  Argentina  of  which 
Parana  is  the  capital  founded  a  special  normal  school 
for  rural  teachers  ten  miles  out  in  the  country  on  a  farm 
of  400  hectares15.  Its  course  was  half  academic  and 
professional,  and  half  agricultural.  The  purpose  of  the 
school  was  to  train  men  for  the  rural  schools  where  a 
house  for  the  teacher  was  supplied  and  four  hectares  of 
land  about  every  schoolhouse  could  be  used  as  a  garden. 
The  products  of  this  garden  belonged  to  the  teacher  to  use 
or  sell.  The  school  started  with  thirty  free  scholarships 
in  1905  and  the  number  has  been  increased  as  the  insti- 

15)  One  hectare  equals  10,000  square  meters  equals  2.471  acres. 


PLANS  FOR   RECRUITING  THE  PROFESSION  71 

tution  grew.  This  combination  of  subsidized  training 
and  supplemented  salary  has  worked  well  in  that  province. 
These  Latin-American  Normal  Schools  have  made  a 
profession  of  teaching  possible  in  the  elementary  schools, 
but  the  course  of  stud}'  and  entrance  requirements  prevent 
them  from  supplying  the  secondary  schools  with  teachers. 
Occasionally  the  failure  of  students  to  fulfill  their  pledge 
has  been  winked  at  and  at  other  times  political  influence 
has  given  scholarships  to  the  unworthy,  but  the  general 
success  of  the  plan  of  subsidizing  prospective  teachers  is 
unquestioned.16 

Brazil,  Argentina,  Peru,  Chile,  Columbia,  Costa  Rica, 
and  Mexico  are  some  of  the  countries  that  have  subsi- 
dized the  teaching  profession  with  slight  variations  from 
the  methods  discussed. 

E.     IN  EUROPE. 

i.     France. 

France  with  its  centralized  system  of  public  education 
affords  one  of  the  best  illustrations  of  aid  for  the  pro- 
spective teacher.  Each  department,  corresponding  some- 
what to  one  of  our  counties,  is  required  to  maintain  a 
normal  school  for  girls  and  one  for  boys.  These  are 
usually  located  in  the  largest  towns  of  the  department. 
The  expenses  of  the  schools  are  divided  between  the  de- 
partment and  the  state.  The  latter  pays  all  salaries  for 
instruction  and  the  living  expenses  of  the  pupils,  while  the 
department  provides  the  buildings  and  grounds  and 
maintains  them.  Some  of  the  wealthier  departments  pro- 
vide the  pupils  with  sufficient  clothing  for  the  entire 
course.  In  the  summer,  excursions  are  conducted  for  a 
group  of  pupils  half  chosen  by  the  faculty  and  the  other 
half  by  the  pupils.  Trips  to  England,  Spain,  and  Sardinia 


16)  E.   E.  Brandon,  U.   S.  Bureau  of  Education,   Bulletin  No.   30, 
1912,  Latin-American  Universities  and  Special  Schools. 


72       STATE  MAINTENANCE  Of  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

have  been  taken  at  the  expense  of  the  wealthy  depart- 
ments. Entrance  to  the  normal  schools  is  by  competitive 
examination.  In  some  departments  there  have  been  from 
three  to  six  times  as  many  candidates  as  there  were  places. 
In  order  to  be  admitted  to  the  examination  the  individual 
must  be  in  perfect  physical  condition,  must  be  between 
sixteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  must  agree  to  re- 
main in  the  public  school  service  for  ten  years,  and  hold 
the  brevet  elementaire.17  He  must  give  bond  signed  by  a 
responsible  relative  or  guardian  agreeing  to  reimburse  the 
state  if  the  contract  is  broken. 

From  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  elementary  teachers 
are  trained  in  the  normal  schools  under  this  plan  of  sub- 
sidies.18 The  nation  maintains  two  higher  normal  schools 
for  the  purpose  of  training  teachers  for  the  many  lower 
normal  schools.  All  expense  of  these  schools  and  the 
pupils  was  provided  by  the  nation.  Some  prospective 
teachers  of  modern  languages  have  been  sent  abroad  to 
get  a  post-graduate  year's  training  in  English  or  Ger- 
man at  government  expense. 

The  idea  of  professional  education  for  elementary 
teachers  is  firmly  implanted  among  the  French,  but  the 
conditions  which  resulted  in  the  Great  War  compelled  the 
nation  to  maintain  such  a  large  army  and  navy  and  to  re- 
quire so  much  military  training  that  education  has  suf- 
fered financially. 

2.     England, 

In  England  teacher  training  is  a  serious  problem  be- 
cause there  are  so  many  different  types  of  schools  from 
which  prospective  teachers  come  and  because  the  methods 
of  preparation  vary  greatly.  In  1912,  of  the  certified 


17)  Result  of  examination  based  on  a  standard  slightly  higher 
than  elementary  school. 

18)  The  Public  Primary  School  System   of  France,   Parrington, 
1906. 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  TIHJ  PROFESSION  73 

teachers  of  England  only  57.15%  were  trained.19  There 
is  a  complete  system  by  which  persons  intending  to  enter 
the  teaching  profession  receive  a  free  education  for  the 
purpose.  This  opportunity  means  more  in  England  than 
in  America  because  so  many  of  the  better  schools  are 
tuition  schools.  The  usual  course  is  for  a  student  to  re- 
main in  the  secondary  school,  usually  as  a  bursar  until  he 
is  seventeen,  and  then  to  become  a  student-teacher,  Then 
he  takes  the  preliminary  examination  and  proceeds  either 
to  a  training  college,  where  the  usual  course  is  two  years, 
or  .to  a  university  training  department  where  the  course 
is  usually  three  years  and  leads  to  a  degree.  Opportu- 
nities are  provided  for  additional  years  of  study.  Exam- 
inations are  used  for  selecting  candidates  for  these  grants 
and  examinations  are  the  basis  of  certification  at  the  end. 
The  Board  of  Education  is  urging  an  increase  in  "main- 
tenance allowances"  by  local  authorities.  Training  Col- 
leges in  England  are  furnishing  only  half  of  the  9,000 
teachers  required  annually.  Before  being  appointed  as  a 
pupil  or  student-teacher  or  bursar,  a  candidate  and  his 
parent  must  sign  a  declaration  that  he  intends  to  teach, 
and  before  entering  a  training  college  he  agrees  to  reim- 
burse the  Board  to  the  extent  of  the  amount  paid  for  his 
education  if  he  does  not  successfully  finish  the  course 
and  serve  in  an  approved  school  for  a  specified  period. 
The  influence  of  the  mother  country  is  very  noticeable 
in  the  various  British  Colonies  in  regard  to  state  aid  for 
prospective  teachers. 

3.     Scotland. 

In  Scotland  teacher-training  is  well  centralized.  In 
1905  only  67%  of  the  teachers  were  certificated  and  in 
1912  the  number  of  well  prepared  teachers  had  increased 
to  g/6%.  This  was  the  result  of  the  state's  taking  con- 

19)  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1911-12. 


74     STATE  MAINTENANCE;  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

trol  of  the  function  of  training  teachers  which  had  been 
formerly  managed  by  the  church.  The  state  equipped 
the  existing  colleges  with  buildings  and  apparatus  and 
paid  the  fees  of  students  in  the  form  of  grants.20  The 
student  signs  an  agreement  to  complete  the  course  and  to 
teach  from  two  to  six  years,  according  to  the  sums  which 
have  been  paid  him  in  fees  or  allowances.  These  agree- 
ments are  looked  upon  seriously  and  the  contracts  are 
performed.  The  result  of  the  plan  is  that  boys  and  girls 
from  the  artisan  class  and  from  the  homes  of  small  mer- 
chants are  the  usual  candidates  for  these  stipends.  Stu- 
dent's who  pay  their  own  fees  are  welcomed  but  have  no 
obligation  to  serve.  About  1,400  new  teachers  are 
needed  in  Scotland  annually  and  this  is  the  output  of  the 
teacher-training  institutions.  The  education  department 
does  not  take  any  responsibility  for  employment.  Judd 
says,  "Subsidies  for  teachers'  salaries  in  schools  of  poor 
communities  will  have  to  be  provided  as  the  counterpart 
of  the  legal  demand  that  the  remotest  highland  school 
shall  employ  a  teacher  whose  professional  training  cannot 
be  completed  under  most  favorable  conditions  before  the 
candidate  is  twenty-one."21 

4.     Germany. 

In  Germany  before  1914  it  was  impossible  to  enter  the 
profession  of  teaching  without  having  an  efficient  prepar- 
ation. Each  teacher  must  have  satisfied  the  requirements 
of  a  high  order  in  each  state,  and  when  he  was  appointed 
he  became  a  member  of  the  service  for  life  or  until  pen- 
sioned. A  teacher  in  the  Volksschule  was  trained  in  those 
schools  for  the  common  people  and  then  he  took  six  years 
of  additional  preparation.  Small  fees  were  charged  but 


20)  Training  of  Teachers  in  England,  Scotland  and  Germany, 
Judd,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  35,  1914. 

El)  Chas.  H.  Judd.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  35, 
1914,  p.  52. 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  THE  PROFESSION  75 

if  the  student  was  capable  and  yet  unable  to  pay  for  his 
maintenance  the  state  made  up  the  deficit.  The  student 
promised  to  pay  back  all  costs  of  his  education  if  he  did 
not  complete  the  course,  or  if  he  failed  within  the  first  five 
years  after  passing  the  first  teacher's  examination  to  ac- 
cept the  position  assigned  him  in  the  public  school  service 
by  the  provincial  or  central  authorities.  On  account  of 
the  tenure  of  these  teachers,  the  annual  turnover  was  not 
great,  and  it  was  possible  for  the  authorities  to  select 
from  the  large  number  of  candidates  the  best  ability  for 
the  places  in  the  Lehrerseminare.  The  profession  of 
teaching  was  the  only  one  open  to  these  pupils  and  the 
stipends  made  it  specially  attractive  to  those  coming  from 
the  poorer  homes. 

In  Prussia  in  1911,  78.8%  of  the  teachers  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  were  men.  Eighty  per  cent,  of  the  Ger- 
man teachers  have  taught  longer  than  five  years,  the 
average  American  tenure.  Forty-five  per  cent,  of  the  male 
teachers  in  cities  have  served  more  than  twenty  years. 
Fifty-three  per  cent,  of  the  men  in  the  country  schools 
have  taught  more  than  ten  years.  Along  with  tenure  the 
salary  paid  provided  the  teacher  with  a  comfortable  home, 
education  for  his  children,  some  opportunity  for  savings, 
and  a  pension.  The  middle  50%  of  German  teachers  were 
better  paid  than  the  same  group  in  the  United  States. 
Administrative  officers  and  teachers  were  more  nearly  on 
the  same  salary  level.  The  best  feature  of  all  was  that 
the  country  schools  were  as  well  taught  as  those  of  the 
cities.  Most  teachers  began  in  the  country  after  they 
were  trained.22 

5.     Portugal. 

In  Portugal,  by  a  law  which  went  into  effect  in  Sep- 
tember, 1919,  there  were  created  three  normal  schools. 

22)  Prussian   Elementary   Schools,  Alexander,   1918. 


76       STATS  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

Others  may  be  established  by  the  government  when  the 
general  assembly  of  a  district  rquires  them,  it  being 
necessary  always  that  these  corporations  assume  the  re- 
sponsibility for  building  and  equipping  the  school,  leav- 
ing to  the  state  the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers  and 
other  employees. 

There  is  to  be  granted  a  scholarship  of  120  cscudos 
($72.00)  annually  to  students  who  show  themselves  to  be 
in  need  of  this  help,  preference  being  given  to  children  of 
primary  teachers.  The  number  of  students  who  may  take 
advantage  of  this  scholarship  in  each  school  year  can  be 
raised  to  one  hundred  for  each  normal  school.  A  student 
who  loses  a  year  through  failures  or  through  having  been 
suspended,  excepting  in  cases  of  proved  illness,  loses  his 
right  to  a  scholarship.  Scholarship  students  are  obliged 
to  teach  in  the  official  schools  for  ten  successive  years  or 
to  return  the  amount  received  in  scholarship  grants,  un- 
der penalty  of  losing  the  right  to  exercise  public  functions 
if  they  fail  in  one  of  these  obligations.  The  funds  for 
these  scholarships  are  to  come  from  the  grants  of  the 
state  to  the  districts  for  the  expenses  of  primary  educa- 
tion/^ 

23)  The    Preparation    of    Teachers    in    Portugal,    L.    M.    Wilson. 

Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  January,  1919, 

pp.  44-46. 

NOTE:  Holland  maintained  sixty-four  normal  schools  in  1910. 
The  state  supplied  free  books,  free  tuition  and  in  some  cases 
granted  a  subsidy  to  pay  part  of  room  and  board  for  students 
whose  parents  do  not  live  near  the  school. 

Denmark  provides  one  hundred  annual  scholarships  for  teach- 
ers at  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  Norway  maintains  six 
public  and  four  private  colleges  for  teachers.  Instruction  in  the 
public  colleges  is  free  and  there  are  a  number  of  free  scholarships 
in  the  private  colleges.  The  government  makes  appropriations 
for  teaching  scholarships  for  special  teachers  and  for  primary 
teachers.  These  courses  are  given  at  the  State  University  and  at 
the  Bergen  Museum.  In  Sweden  in  the  higher  Training  College 
for  women  tuition  is  free  to  all  and  in  addition  many  poor  and 
deserving  students  receive  scholarships  from  the  state.24 
-•*)  Modern  Education  in  Europe  and  the  Orient,  Cloyd,  1917. 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  THE  PROFESSION  77 

F.    In  Asia. 

In  the  Orient  the  normal  schools  provide  the  best  oppor- 
tunity for  girls  to  get  a  higher  education.  In  Japan  girls 
are  not  admitted  to  government  colleges  nor  to  the  univer- 
sities. The  fact  that  the  government  furnishes  an  allow- 
ance to  cover  board,  tuition  and  clothing,  as  well  as  other 
incidental  expenses,  makes  a  course  in  preparation  for 
teaching  so  popular  that  only  about  25%  of  the  candidates 
are  admitted.  Some  are  admitted  who  are  willing  to  pay 
their  own  expenses.  The  graduates  receive  certificates  and 
those  who  are  men  receive  an  allowance  of  one  year's  mili- 
tary service  instead  of  nine  compulsory  years  of  service. 
These  teachers  promise  to  teach  two  or  three  years  in 
schools  designated  by  the  government  and  for  periods  of 
one  to  four  years  in  schools  of  their  own  choice.25 

There  are  higher  normal  schools  for  training  secondary 
teachers  where  the  terms  of  admission  are  equally  liberal. 

In  China  the  provinces  maintain  normal  schools  for  the 
training  of  elementary  teachers  where  board,  tuition,  text- 
books, and  in  some  cases  uniforms  are  furnished  at  state 
expense.  "This  is  one  of  the  best  phases  of  the  present 
system  of  Chinese  education."26  The  Central  Government 
has  provided  training  schools  at  Peking  for  the  training  of 
secondary  school  teachers.  Many  teachers  are  trained  in 
the  mission  schools  where  as  far  as  possible  everything  is 
free. 

In  India  students  or  teachers  undergoing  training  gen- 
erally receive  a  stipend  or  the  pay  of  their  post.  Be- 
cause of  a  lack  of  students  these  stipends  have  been  raised 
during  the  last  five  years.  In  the  central  provinces  they 
now  range  from  $12.00  to  $18.00  a  month.  Madras  also 
grants  ah  allowance  for  traveling  expenses. 

25)  Modern  Education  in  Europe  and  the  Orient,  Cloyd,  1917. 

26)  Information  given  by  Chinese  students. 

Teachers'  College  Contribution  to   Education,  No.   64,  P.   W. 
Kuo,  p.  169. 


78       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

The  students  pledge  themselves  to  teach  two  years, 
if  girls,  three  years,  if  boys,  and  to  refund  the  amount 
of  their  aid  if  they  fail  to  render  the  service.  In 
Madras  far  -more  apply  for  stipends  in  the  normal 
schools  than  can  receive  them.27 

G.     New  Zealand,  Australia  and  South  America. 

New  Zealand  grades  its  prospective  teachers  with 
reference  to  previous  training  and  experience.  The 
best  grades  receive  grants  of  $450.00  for  board  and 
tuition  at  the  university  and  the  others  receive  $350.00. 
Provision  for  further  improvement  in  these  allow- 
ances is  at  present  under  consideration.  In  1918,  the 
average  salary  for  men  was  about  $1,360.00  and  for 
women,  $765.00,  making  no  allowance  for  exchange.28 

Provinces  like  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and 
Queensland  in  Australia  give  much  aid  to  the  prospective 
teachers.  The  amounts  are  based  upon  standing  in  com- 
petitive examinations.  After  graduation  the  teachers  are 
members  of  the  state  service  and  are  placed  where  needed. 
Thus  the  isolated  country  children  receive  trained  instruc- 
tion, for  itinerant  teachers  visit  such  children  in  their 
homes  several  times  a  year.  In  Queensland  a  zoning 
system  of  salaries  has  been  inaugurated  by  which  the  in- 
convenience of  living  far  from  the  city  is  neutralized  by 
adding  $100.00  per  year  to  the  salary  for  each  zone,  one 
hundred  miles  wide.29 

Transportation  is  provided  for  pupils  and  prospective 
teachers  in  New  South  Wales.  In  return  for  these  grants 
the  students  must  give  bond  for  two  years'  service.  The 
government  supports  several  post-graduate  scholarships 


27)  Progress  of  Education  in  India,  Bureau  of  Education,  India, 
1912-1917. 

28)  New  Zealand  Government  Education  Report,  1918. 

29)  P.  P.  Claxton,  address  New  York  City,  1921. 


PLANS  FOR  RECRUITING  THE  PROFESSION  79 

worth  $1,500.00  per  year.30  Other  provinces  have  similar 
plans. 

In  South  Africa  the  plans  for  prospective  teachers  are 
like  those  mentioned  in  Australia.  Scholarships,  free 
transportation  and  maintenance  are  offered  by  some 
provinces.31 

Thus  around  the  world  in  many  different  countries  the 
government  has  found  it  necessary  to  aid  prospective 
teachers  with  various  types  of  subsidies.  The  supply  of 
teachers  from  this  source  is  only  limited  by  the  amount 
of  money  available. 

SUMMARY. 

1.  Financial   assistance   for   prospective     teachers    is 
found  in  every  state.    It  varies  from  free  tuition  to  com- 
plete maintenance  during  training. 

2.  Many  foreign  countries  have  secured  a  portion  of 
their  teachers  by  aiding  those  who  need  assistance  or  by 
rewarding  those   who  win  a   limited   number   of  places 
through  competitive  examination. 

3.  In   some   countries   a   larger   state   investment   in 
training  often  results   in  the  teacher  becoming  a  state 
officer  who  may  be  assigned  in  the  school  system  where 
the  greatest  need  exists.     Thus  urban   and   rural  edu- 
cational opportunities  become  more  nearly  equalized. 

4.  Students  who  receive  aid  must  obligate  themselves 
to  a  definite  period  of  service  or  else  refund  the  sub- 
sidy to  the  state. 

5.  The  number  aided  is  limited  by  the  resources  avail- 
able for  the  purpose  rather  than  by  any  evils  inherent  in 
the  plans  of  subsidy. 

30)  New   South   Wales  Government  Education   Report,   1918. 

31)  Graduate   Students'   Reports. 

Monroe,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  Article,  South  Africa. 


CHAPTER  IV 

METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  OCCUPA- 
TIONS  AND   PROFESSIONS   THROUGH 
FINANCIAL  ASSISTANCE 

Teaching  is  not  the  only  vocation  that  has  received 
financial  support  from  the  state  and  nation.  The  devel- 
opment of  vocational  education  in  the  schools  is  a  result  of 
the  recognition  of  the  principle  that  one  of  the  important 
functions  of  training  future  citizens  is  to  render  them 
self-supporting  and  independent.  To  create  wealth  pro- 
motes the  economic  stability  of  the  state  as  well  as  that 
of  the  individual.  Vocational  education  plans  to  aid  the 
student  in  discovering  his  own  possibilities  and  in  mak- 
ing the  most  of  them.  Experience  has  brought  the  lead- 
ers in  industrial  education  to  conclude  that  short  inten- 
sive courses  in  the  schools  with  definite  objectives,  are 
better  than  the  more  extensive  courses  which  were  planned 
formerly.  Such  short  courses  enable  the  individual  to 
enter  his  chosen  field  of  labor  sooner  and  permit  him  to 
earn  while  he  learns.  Promotion  comes  as  he  develops 
ability  through  his  service.  The  state  aids  in  his  prep- 
aration and  he  is  soon  able  to  help  himself. 

In  the  vocation  of  teaching,  conditions  are  very  dif- 
ferent. The  same  need  for  assistance  exists,  but  it  takes 
much  longer  to  get  ready  to  do  a  piece  of  professional 
work. 

The  state  has  a  more  vital  interest  in  the  preparation 
of  the  teacher  than  in  the  training  of  a  majority  of  work- 
ers because  the  teacher  becomes  an  employee  of  the  state 
and  because  the  raw  materials  of  the  school,  the  children, 
are  the  hope  of  the  future.  The  teacher  needs  a  long 
course  of  preliminary  training  since  teaching  differs  from 

81 


82       STATE  MAINTENANCE)  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

the  industrial  pursuits  in  that  its  responsibilities  and  bur- 
dens cannot  be  assumed  gradually.  In  short  this  is  an 
outstanding  contrast  between  a  profession  and  a  trade. 
If  the  state  should  aid  individuals  to  learn  trades  which 
require  such  short  preliminary  training,  how  much  more 
should  the  state  prepare  recruits  for  the  difficult  art  of 
teaching!  That  is  a  task  which  requires  a  maximum  of 
skill  from  the  first  day  of  actual  practice.  It  needs  a 
breadth  of  vision  that  recognizes  the  desirable  outcomes 
of  education.  This  preparation  requires  years  of  study. 

The  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of 
Teaching  recommends  that  normal  schools  become  teach- 
ers' colleges  as  rapidly  as  possible  in  order  that  prospec- 
tive teachers  for  the  elementary  schools  may  be  better 
prepared.1  There  is  a  marked  tendency  among  the  nor- 
mal schools  of  the  country  to  accept  this  recommendation. 
The  normal  schools  of  California  and  Washington  are 
rapidly  moving  toward  the  college  basis.  Kansas,  Mis- 
souri, Indiana  and  Michigan  in  the  Middle  West  maintain 
several  four-year  courses,  while  New  York  in  the  East, 
has  changed  its  standard  normal  school  program  from  a 
two-year  to  a  three-year  basis  to  take  effect  in  1921-22. 
The  more  extensive  the  preparation  required  for  teach- 
ing, the  more  necessary  will  adequate  state  assistance  be- 
come in  order  to  make  it  possible  for  prospective  teach- 
ers to  get  the  training.  The  movement  to  extend  the 
time  for  the  preparation  of  teachers  is  directly  opposite 
to  that  of  shortening  the  time  for  the  preliminary  train- 
ing of  industrial  workers.  This  difference  emphasizes 
the  need  of  aid  for  teachers  during  the  long  period  of 
preparation  to  compensate  for  the  wages  that  other  work- 
ers may  earn  during  their  early  experiences  in  industry. 

1)  Bulletin    No.    14,    1920,    Carnegie    Foundation    for    Advance- 
ment of  Teaching. 


METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS          83 
SCHOOLS  IN   INDUSTRY 

Corporations  have  learned  the  lesson  that  specific 
training  is  worth  while.  Employees  have  been  encouraged 
to  attend  evening  schools,  or  else  to  attend  classes  within 
the  institution.  The  great  electric  companies,  the  West- 
inghouse  and  the  General  Electric  Company  are  notable 
examples.  The  Ford  works,  in  Detroit,  conduct  a  large 
educational  department.  John  Wanamaker's  department 
stores  organize  classes  in  salesmanship  and  in  courtesy  and 
hygiene.  The  great  banking  institutions  train  their  new 
workers.  The  purpose  of  this  instruction  is  to  develop 
the  types  of  service  demanded,  and  to  make  promotion 
possible,  and  to  contribute  to  contentment  and  perma- 
nence of  tenure.  Young  people  need  help  to  find  them- 
selves in  industry  and  in  society.  The  continuation 
schools  found  in  fourteen  states  are  striving  to  assist 
these  young  workers  to  prepare  for  advancement.  The 
individual  seldom  pays  all  that  his  training  and  education 
cost  for  a  particular  occupation  or  profession.  The  par- 
ent assists,  then  the  state,  then  perhaps  the  endowed  edu- 
cational institution,  and  finally  the  corporation  employing 
the  worker.  In  a  comprehensive  sense,  all  of  this  assist- 
ance is  the  effort  of  organized  society  to  perpetuate  and 
improve  itself  by  preparing  the  individual  to  participate 
in  the  activities  of  the  group. 

OCCUPATIONS  FOR  WOMEN. 

Since  most  of  the  public  school  teachers  are  women,  it  is 
fitting  to  study  the  situation  at  present  with  reference  to 
several  occupations  that  are  filled  almost  exclusively  by 
women.  Throughout  a  period  of  training  for  these  voca- 
tions, the  workers  are  paid  and  the  ultimate  earning 
capacity  is  not  reduced  because  of  support  during  the 
learning  process. 

The  telegraph  and  telephone  companies  train  girls  for 
their  work.  The  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company 


84       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

employed  girls  in  1913  at  $3.50  per  week  and  gave  them 
two  hours  of  instruction  every  day.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  year  they  could  receive  instruments  at  $25.00  a 
month.  Skilled  operators  before  the  war  received  $60.00 
to  $70.00  a  month.  The  telephone  companies  paid  from 
$6.00  to  $15.00  a  week  and  gave  instruction  to  beginners 
for  a  period  of  four  months.2  Thus  progress  was  made 
according  to  the  industry  and  ability  of  the  individual 
until  in  some  cases  the  weekly  salary  ranged  from  $23.00 
to  $36.00  and  chief  operators  sometimes  received  $50.00 
a  week.  The  corporation  gave  the  training  and  advanced 
the  worker.  According  to  the  Census  Bureau  3  for  1917, 
more  than  155,000  women  and  girls  were  employed  in 
this  industry. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  more  than  600  general 
hospitals  that  train  women  as  nurses.  The  educational 
requirements  of  this  profession  are  in  many  ways  anal- 
ogous to  those  for  teaching.  Only  12%  of  the  nurses' 
training  schools  permit  the  graduates  of  the  elementary 
schools  to  begin  the  work,  while  2&%  require  complete 
four-year  high  school  preparation.  The  courses  for  train- 
ing vary  in  length  from  a  year  and  a  half  to  three  years. 
Only  a  small  number  charge  tuition  and  these  are  gener- 
ally post-graduate  in  character.  About  1,400  of  these 
training  schools  pay  their  students  a  cash  sum  besides 
furnishing  them  room,  board  and  laundry.  The  median 
remuneration  for  the  first  year  of  training  is  $72.00;  for 
the  second  year  $96.00;  and  for  the  third  year,  $108.00.  It 
is  true  that  they  work  while  they  earn  and  deserve  all  they 
get,  but  it  does  not  prevent  a  trained  nurse  from  making  a 
relatively  high  charge  for  her  services  after  graduation. 
Both  teaching  and  nursing  are  essential  for  the  public 

2)  Profitable  Vocations  for  Girls,  E.   M.   Weaver. 

3)  1917   Census   of   Electrical   Industries,    Bureau   of   Commerce, 

issued  1920. 


METHODS  OL'  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS          85 

good.  Both  require  an  extensive  training  in  order  to  do  the 
skilled  work  that  the  occupations  demand.  The  rewards 
for  training  in  both  are  practically  equal.  The  median 
income  of  1,000  nurses  in  New  York  City  without  main- 
tenance in  1903  was  between  $900.00  and  $i,ooo.oo.4 
From  the  economic  point  of  view,  which  type  of  training 
would  a  young  woman  choose,  the  training  school  for 
nurses,  or  the  training  school  for  teachers  ? 

Another  occupation  that  employs  many  women,  is 
office  work,  including  stenography.  The  commercial 
course  of  the  public  high  school  gives  a  preparation  that 
admits  the  worker  to  this  occupation  on  its  lower  levels. 
As  a  measure  of  the  drawing  power  of  a  vocation  whose 
training  is  obtained  at  public  expense,  enrollment  in  com- 
mercial courses  in  the  high  schools  for  the  year  1917-18 
may  be  fairly  taken.  Of  278,275  pupils  enrolled  in  com- 
mercial courses,  173,857  were  girls.6  The  wages  ranged 
from  $12.00  to  $160.00  a  month  in  this  occupation  in 
1913. 7  Among  twenty-six  stenographers  who  had  had 
high  school  training  only,  and  who  were  working  in  the 
best  type  of  offices  in  New  York  City  in  1920,  $110.00  was 
the  median  salary ;8  As  long  as  such  salaries  may  be 
earned  without  a  period  of  training  in  an  institution  away 
from  home,  and  without  large  personal  investment,  it  is 
easy  to  see  why  the  occupation  has  attracted  so  many 
prospective  workers. 

TEACHING  COMPARED  WITH   MILITARY  SERVICE. 

Teaching  is  a  type  of  government  service  that  may  be 
compared  with  that  rendered  by  the  officers  of  the  army 
and  the  navy.  To  promote  the  general  welfare  in  times 
of  peace  and  to  provide  for  the  common  defense  in  times 

4)  Vocations   for   Girls,   E.   M.   Weaver,   p.    211. 

6)  Report  of  U.   S.  Commissioner  of  Education,   Bulletin  No.   19, 

1920. 

7)  Vocations  for  Girls,  E.  M.  Weaver,  p.   126. 

8)  Unpublished   Study   of  Russell   Sage  Foundation. 


86       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


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METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS          87 

of  war,  are  cooperative  purposes  of  government.  Both 
groups  of  public  servants  are  essential  to  the  perpetuity 
of  the  state.  Both  are  salaried  occupations  and  do  not 
offer  the  unlimited  financial  opportunities  that  are  found 
in  law,  medicine,  engineering  or  business. 

"The  individual  student  who  might  otherwise  wish  to 
prepare  himself  adequately  for  teaching  is  likely  to  be  dis- 
couraged by  the  relatively  small  financial  returns  that  he 
must  expect  from  his  investment.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
he  wishes  to  enter  the  service  of  public  defense  as  an 
officer  in  the  army  or  the  navy,  and  if  he  is  successful  in 
securing  an  appointment  at  West  Point  or  Annapolis  and 
competent  to  meet  the  entrance  requirements,  the  govern- 
ment will  not  only  provide  him  with  board  and  tuition 
during  his  period  of  preparation,  but  will  also  pay  him  an 
annual  stipend  of  $6oo.oo."9  The  World  Almanac  for 
1921,  estimates  the  investment  in  each  man  at  West  Point 
at  $1,174.20  per  year.  After  graduation  the  average  sal- 
ary for  the  first  four  years  of  service  both  in  the  army  and 
the  navy  is  $1,600.00  per  year.  These  military  institutions 
have  succeeded  in  establishing  a  reputation  that  includes 
social  prestige.  Merit  counts  for  everything.  No  one 
feels  disgraced  by  accepting  this  government  aid.  On  the 
contrary,  it  is  considered  an  honor  to  be  appointed.  The 
plan  has  little  opposition  and  so  far  as  government  aid 
is  concerned,  it  has  been  incontestably  justified  in  its 
success. 

There  is  practically  no  similar  opportunity  offered  to 
those  who  wish  to  enter  the  profession  of  teaching, 
though  its  service  is  equally  necessary.  The  problems  of 
education  are  so  numerous  and  so  complex  that  the  need 
for  selected  ability  is  just  as  great  as  it  is  in  the  case  of 
military  leaders.  Many  foreign  governments  render  aid 
to  their  prospective  teachers  because  they  expect  an  im- 

9)  Commission  on  Emergency  in  Education,  Series  No.  3,  p.  12. 


88     STATE;  MAINTENANCE;  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

portant  public  service  in  return.  They  select  competent 
persons  for  the  teaching  service  and  train  them  at  public 
expense.  It  is  even  conceivable  that  a  state  might  ex- 
ercise its  sovereign  power  to  the  extent  of  drafting  re- 
cruits for  its  teaching  service  as  it  does  in  time  of  need 
for  its  military  pursuits.  "Is  there  any  more  reason  why 
any  community  should  be  excused  from  furnishing  her 
full  quota  of  teachers;  than  that  the  community  should 
have  been  excused  during  the  war  for  not  having  fur- 
nished her  full  quota  of  soldiers  and  sailors  ?"10 

Many  state  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher 
learning  have  maintained  systems  of  scholarships  which 
aim  to  assist  unusual  ability  and  to  aid  those  whose 
financial  needs  were  proving  to  be  a  serious  handicap  to 
their  education.  Such  scholarships  have  been  looked 
upon  as  honors  and  evidence  set  forth  later  in  this  study 
shows  that  these  scholarship  students  have  proved  worthy 
of  the  honors  conferred.  Men  of  wealth  leave  large 
sums  of  money  for  scholarships  in  these  institutions  be- 
lieving that  superior  ability  should  be  recognized  and  de- 
veloped for  the  good  of  the  nation.  For  example,  the 
Edward  Rector  Scholarship  Foundation  of  Depauw  Uni- 
versity, Greencastle,  Indiana,  provides  for  400  scholar- 
ships for  men  who  were  honor  students  during  their  four 
years  of  high  school. 

Cecil  Rhodes  endowed  an  extensive  system  of  interna- 
tional scholarships  when  he  provided  for  supporting  at 
the  University  of  Oxford  for  the  term  of  three  years  each, 
about  176  selected  scholars  from  the  British  Colonies,  the 
United  States,  and  Germany.  The  United  States  was 
entitled  to  send  two  of  its  best  students  from  each  of-the 
states  and  territories.  The  requirements  are  the  com- 
pletion of  at  least  two  years  in  college  and  an  age  limit 

10)  Education,  May,  1920,  pp.  534-5.  Supt.  H.  S.  Gruver,  Worces- 
ter, Mass. 


METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS         89 

of  from  19  to  25  years.  The  selections  are  made  on  the 
basis  of  a  man's  record  in  school  and  college  according 
to  the  four  points  outlined  in  the  will, — scholarship,  char- 
acter, interest  in  outdoor  sports  and  interest  in  one's  fel- 
lows, and  instinct  for  leadership.  Between  the  years 
1904  and  1914,  351  men  were  appointed.  A  recent  sur- 
vey reports  that  ninety-nine  of  these  have  published  books 
or  articles.  Seventeen  are  included  in  "Who's  Who," 
although  the  group  is  still  under  forty  years  of  age. 

The  Oxonian  summarizes  its  survey  of  these  men  as 
follows : 

TA.BI.E    XIV.      PRESENT    OCCUPATION    OF    AMERICAN    RHODES    SCHOLARS. 
I004-I9I4 

Education    .114 

College  presidents,  deans,  etc 7 

Other  College  Teachers 84 

Educational  Administration   7 

Secondary   School 1 1 

Full  time  teaching,  law,  medicine,  theology..       5 

Law    72 

Business 38 

Social  and  religious  work  (including  twelve  ministers) 23 

Government  service    • 15 

Graduate  or  professional  students 10 

Scientific  work   10 

Literary  and  editorial  work 8 

Medical  work   7 

Miscellaneous    4 

Poor    health    • , 2 

Total 303 

Unaccounted  for  or  dead 48 

351 

For  undergraduates  in  Columbia  University  Joseph 
Pulitzer  endowed  forty  scholarships  worth  $200.00  each 
and  in  recognition  of  a  separate  gift  to  the  University,  the 
institution  also  grants  free  tuition  to  these  scholars. 
Many  scholarships  of  a  similar  type  are  described  in  the 
catalogues  of  the  leading  institutions  of  the  country.  It 


90       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

is  not  likely  that  a  policy  that  has  resulted  in  so  much 
good  to  the  individual  and  to  the  nation  will  be  aban- 
doned. 

TRAVELING  SCHOLARSHIPS. 

The  educational  value  of  travel  has  long  been  recog- 
nized. International  exchanges  of  students  have  reaped 
the  benefit  of  the  travel  involved  and  of  the  contact  with 
the  best  thought  in  the  famous  institutions  of  learning  of 
the  countries  visited.  The  selected  youth  of  such  coun- 
tries as  Japan,  China,  and  India,  after  a  university  course 
in  America  or  Europe,  have  returned  home  to  become 
useful  leaders  in  the  public  service  of  their  governments. 
India  alone  supports  300  state  technical  scholarships 
abroad.  These  students  receive  £150  a  year  for  two  years, 
so  that  each  student  costs  the  Indian  Government  about 
^55°-n  1°  China,  after  the  Boxer  Rebellion  an  edict 
was  issued  ordering  the  leading  officers  in  the  various 
provinces  to  select  their  most  capable  students  and  to 
send  them  abroad  to  master  Western  learning.  Education 
and  business,  as  well  as  international  relations,  will  be 
profoundly  influenced  by  such  a  policy.  These  men  and 
women  become  teachers  and  administrators  in  the  higher 
institutions  at  home  and  are  able  to  exert  more  influence 
than  any  group  of  foreigners  could  hope  to  do. 

NEW    YORK   STATE    NAUTICAL   SCHOOL 

By  the  provisions  of  Chapter  322  of  the  laws  of  New 
York,  passed  in  1913,  the  state  maintains  a  school  for 
the  education  and  training  of  pupils  in  the  science  and 
practice  of  navigation,  seamanship,  and  steam  and  electric 
engineering.  This  school  is  intended  to  prepare  the  stu- 
dents to  become  officers  in  the  merchant  marine.  The 
qualifications  are  very  minutely  defined  and  the  young 
student  between  16  and  20  years  of  age  at  entrance  must 


11)  Report  Bureau  of  Education,  India,  1912-17. 


METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS         9! 

deposit  $50.00  for  his  uniforms  for  the  two  years  and 
also  as  a  guaranty  of  good  faith.  Board,  lodging,  tuition, 
and  all  other  necessary  expenses  are  paid  out  of  an  ap- 
propriation which  was  $100,000.00  a  year,  when  the  law 
was  passed. 

The  school  is  located  on  a  naval  vessel  belonging  to  the 
government  and  each  year  a  long  cruise  to  many  of  the 
interesting  ports  of  the  world  is  made  as  a  part  of  the 
training.  These  young  men  are  prepared  to  enter  an 
occupation  that  requires  skill  and  the  financial  rewards 
of  which  are  relatively  high.  The  importance  of  their 
future  work  justified  the  appropriation  of  public  funds. 

Teaching  as  a  profession  for  young  men  enters  into 
competition  with  such  a  subsidized  occupation  possessing 
the  added  attraction  of  life  at  sea.  In  drawing  power, 
teaching  suffers  in  contrast  with  other  occupations.  The 
state  should  be  as  willing  to  help  prepare  the  teachers  of 
its  children  as  it  is  to  train  the  officers  of  its  sea-going 
vessels. 

GOVERNMENT  AID 

The  United  States  government  has  shown  a  liberal 
policy  toward  the  returned  soldiers  in  providing  for  their 
education  in  many  different  types  of  institutions.  It  has 
provided  large  sums  to  aid  in  training  teachers  for  voca- 
tional schools  under  the  terms  of  the  Smith-Hughes  act, 
but  as  yet  no  well  organized  plan  has  been  enacted  into 
federal  law  for  aiding  in  the  preparation  of  the  largest 
group  of  professional  workers  in  the  country,  the  public 
school  teachers. 

THE    MINISTRY    AND    TEACHING 

The  ministry  is  another  profession  whose  financial  re- 
wards have  not  been  commensurate  with  the  training  re- 
quired or  with  the  importance  of  the  work.  But  under 
the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  theological  seminaries  of 


9?       STATS  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

the  country,  it  is  possible  for  any  young  man  of  ability 
and  consecration  to  take  advantage  of  scholarships  that 
are  ample  to  cover  his  living  expenses.  In  eighteen 
prominent  theological  seminaries  chosen  at  random,  the 
catalogues  list  57  fellowships  ranging  from  $150.00  to 
$1,000.00  with  $500.00  as  the  median,  in  addition  to  hun- 
dreds of  scholarships  varying  from  $50.00  to  $500.00. 
The  churches  would  be  unable  to  secure  a  supply  of  min- 
isters if  it  were  not  for  this  aid.  They  have  recognized 
the  need  and  value  of  such  work  to  the  extent  that  they 
have  organized  responsible  boards  of  education  to  collect, 
distribute,  and  supervise  these  student  funds.  In  order  to 
continue  to  receive  assistance  the  individual  must  main- 
tain high  rank  as  a  student  and  must  pledge  himself  to 
repay  the  aid  in  service  or  in  money.  Believing  in  trained 
leadership  these  church  boards  do  not  restrict  their  help 
to  those  who  are  expecting  to  enter  the  ministry  or  mis- 
sionary work.  They  also  render  aid  to  those  desiring  to 
enter  business  or  the  professions.  The  usefulness  of  these 
boards  is  limited  only  by  the  amount  of  money  at  their 
disposal. 


METHODS  Of  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS          93 


TABLE  XV.      ACTIVITIES  OF   GENERAL  EDUCATION   BOARD  OF   METHODIST 

CHURCH.     (Report  of  1920.) 

Total  number  of  students  aided  to  Nov.  30,  1919 26,254 

Aggregate  sum  of  money  invested  in  student  aid. ..  .$3,025,013.5.3 

Students   aided   in   year    1917-18 1,421 

Money  loaned  in  year  1917-18 $86,865.00 

Callings  Aided  in  1917-18 

Ministry    606 

Missionary    107 

Teaching 381 

Professional    207 

Business    120 

Total    1,421 

Nationalities  and  Races  Aided  in   1917-18. 

American    (white)    1,113 

American  (colored)   173 

English     50 

Norwegian    • 10 

Scattering    (28) 125 


Total    1,421 

Geographical  Distribution   1917-18. 

North  Atlantic  States  434 

North  Central  States       • 672 

South  Atlantic  States  121 

South  Central  States   123 

Western  States   68 

Foreign  Countries   3 


Total    1,421 

Loans  bear  4%  interest  and  range  from  $50.00  to  $200.00  per 
year  and  total  $150.00  to  $600.00  for  any  individual  student  in  his 
whole  course. 


94     STATE;  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

TABLE  xvi.    ACTIVITIES  IN  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD  OF  PRESBY- 
TERIAN CHURCH.    (Report  of  1920.) 

Total  sum  paid  to  students   1870-1920 $3,317,227.34 

Number  of  Students  Aided  1915-1920 

Students  aided  in  1915 776 

Students    aided    in    1916 881 

Students   aided   in    1917 , 895 

Students  aided  in  1918 685 

Students   aided   in   1919 403 

Students  aided  in  1920 585 

Total  in  six  years  4,225 

Loans  available  for  candidates  for  the  ministry  and 
mission  students  range  from  $90.00  to  $250.00  per  year. 
Students  give  notes  at  5%,  collectible  if  course  is  aban- 
doned or  on  failure  to  give  to  the  service  contemplated, 
the  first  five  years  after  completing  the  course.  To  stu- 
dents for  lay  service  a  credit  of  40%  of  a  year's  aid  will 
be  given  for  each  year  of  service  approved  by  the  board 
until  debt  is  liquidated. 

Students'  Rotary  Loan  Fund 

Available  for  worthy  and  needy  students  regardless  of 
intended  occupation. 

Conditions. 

Notes  bear  4%  interest  from  first  of  July  after  year  in 
which  loan  was  made.  Notes  mature  three  years  after 
first  of  July  following  graduation.  Then  the  rate  of  in- 
terest is  6%.  $200.00  is  the  limit  in  any  year  and  the 
total  loans  vary  from  $500.00  to  $600.00. 

QUALITY  OF    MEN    AIDED  BY   CHURCH 

The  question  has  been  asked  whether  the  students 
selected  for  aid  by  the  Church  Boards  have  succeeded,  as 
well  as  those  who  were  not  aided.  If  a  subsidy  plan  does 
select  the  inferior  and  those  who  will  prove  wanting  in 
independence  and  leadership  in  their  work,  the  compara- 
tive record  of  men  in  the  field  under  approximately  the 
same  circumstances  should  show  it.  In  order  to  learn 
what  the  facts  are,  the  Chicago  Presbytery  of  the  Pres- 


METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS         95 

byterian  Church  was  selected  as  a  typical  group  of  min- 
isters for  this  investigation. 

After  this  Presbytery  was  selected  it  was  found  that, 
among  the  seventy-two  preachers  actively  engaged  in  the 
ministry,  thirty  had  received  aid  as  students  from  the 
General  Education  Board  of  the  Church.  Five  objective 
criteria  were  chosen  by  which  to  compare  the  success  of 
the  two  groups.  These  were  suggested  by  the  president 
of  the  board  as  fair  standards  for  measuring  success  in 
the  ministry.  They  were  as  follows : — church  membership ; 
gain  in  membership  during  the  year;  membership  of  the 
Sunday  school;  congregational  expenses;  and  amounts 
raised  for  benevolences.  The  facts  here  tabulated  are 
taken  from  the  Annual  Minute  Book  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  for  the  year  1919-20.  In  the  first  comparison, 
although  the  median  membership  of  the  groups  is  against 
the  aided  men,  yet  30%  of  the  aided  men  were  in  the 
upper  quartile.  In  gain  in  membership,  in  size  of  Sunday 
school  and  in  congregational  expenses,  the  aided  men 
make  a  better  record.  In  benevolences  the  unaided  men 
excel  the  others,  and  the  financial  ability  of  a  few  fami- 
lies might  determine  the  difference. 


96     STATS  MAINTENANCE;  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


TABLE   XVII.      CHICAGO   PRESBYTERY. 

Comparison  of  Membership  of  Churches  under  Ministers  Aided 
by  Education  Board  of  the  Church  and  those  not  Aided. 

Membership  Pastors  Aided  Unaided 


0  —  IOO 

5 

4 

I 

101  —  2OO 

20 

7 

13 

2OI  —  3OO 

II 

5 

6 

301  —  4OO 

II 

3 

8 

401  —  500 

7 

2 

5 

5OI  —  OOO 

3 

I 

2 

601  —  700 

4 

3 

I 

701  —  800 

o 

o 

0 

801  —  900 

i 

o 

I 

901  —  1000 

i 

I 

0 

IOOI  —  I  IOO 

i 

0 

I 

IIOI  —  I2OO, 

i 

0 

I 

1201  —  I3OO 

2 

o 

2 

1301  —  I4OO 

3 

2 

I 

I4OI  —  I5OO 

I 

I 

0 

ISO!  —  I6OO 

o 

0 

0 

1601  —  1700 

o 

o 

o 

1701  —  1800 

0 

0 

0 

1801  —  1900 

o 

o 

0 

IOOI  —  20OO 

o 

o 

o 

2OOI  —  2IOO 

I 

0 

I 

Total  72  30  42 

3OO=Median  Membership  of  Group 
24O=Median  Membership  of  Aided 
3O7=Median  Membership  of  Unaided 

Upper   quartile  contains  nine  of   each  group   or  30%   of   aided 
Upper  quartile  contains  nine  of  each  group  or  2143%  unaided 


METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS         97 


TABLE   XVIII.      CHICAGO   PRESBYTERY. 

Comparison  of  Change  in  Membership  in  last  year  of  Churches 

under  Pastors  aided  by  Education  Board  of  the 

Church  and  those  not  aided. 

Change  in  Membership     Pastors  Aided  Unaided 


Loss  230  to  100 

i 

O 

i 

Loss    99  to    50  . 

2 

O 

2 

Loss    49  to    25 

2 

I 

I 

Loss    24  to     10 

6 

2 

4 

Loss      9  to      i 

7 

3 

4 

Gain      o  to     10 

18 

7 

ii 

Gain     n  to    20 

10 

4 

6 

Gain    21  to    30 

7 

4 

3 

Gain    31  to    50 

4 

i 

3 

Gain    51  to    70 

5 

5 

0 

Gain    71  to    90 

3 

i 

2 

Gain    91  to  1  20 

2 

i 

I 

Gain  121  to  200 

3 

i 

2 

Gain  201  to  300 

2 

0 

2 

Total  72  30  42 

Actual  Median  of  Group=gain  of  n  members 

Actual  Median  of  Aided=gain  of  13  members 

Actual  Median  of  Unaided=gain  of  7  members 

30%   of    aided   are   in   Upper   Quartile 

21.43%  of  unaided  are  in  Upper  Quartile 


98       STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


TABLE    XIX.      CHICAGO    PRESBYTERY. 

Comparison  of  Sunday  School  Membership  in  Churches  under 

Pastors   aided   by   Education  Board   of   the 

Church  and  those  not  aided. 


Members  in 
Sunday  School 

Pastors 

Aided 

Unaided 

.  I  —  IOO 

5 

3 

2 

101  —  200 

16 

7 

9 

201  —  300 

20 

S 

'5 

301  —  400 

II 

5 

6 

401  —  500 

2 

o 

2 

501  —  600 

4 

3 

I 

601  —  700 

5 

i 

4 

701  —  800 

o 

o 

0 

801  —  900 

I 

i 

0 

901  —  1000 

I 

o 

I 

IOOI  —  IIOO 

0 

0 

0 

IIOI  —  I2OO 

2 

I 

I 

1  2O  I  —  I3OO 

0 

0 

0 

1301  —  1400 

2 

2 

0 

1401  —  1500 

0 

0 

0 

1501  —  1600 

I 

0 

I 

Total 


70 


28 


42 


Actual  Median  of  group=2S9 
Actual  Median  of  aided  =289 
Actual  Median  of  unaided=252 


METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS          99 


TABLE    XX.      CHICAGO    PRESBYTERY. 

Comparison  of  Congregational  Expenses  in  Churches  under  Pas- 
tors aided  by  Education  Board  of  the  Church 
and  those  not  aided. 
Fiscal   Year   1919-20. 


Congregational    Expenses         Pastors 


Aided 


Actual  Median  of  Group  =$4,21 8 
Actual  Median  of  Aided M  4,436 
Actual  Median  of  Unaided  =  4,000 


Unaided 


0 

—  $  1,000 

2 

O 

2 

1,001 

—    2,000 

9 

6 

3 

2,00  1 

—    3,000 

14 

4 

10 

3,001 

—    4,000 

10 

4 

6 

4,001 

—    5,ooo 

3 

2 

i 

S,ooi 

—    6,000 

2 

0 

$ 

6,00  1 

—    7,000 

3 

0 

3 

7,001 

—    8,000 

2 

2 

o 

8,ooi 

—    9,000 

I 

I 

O 

9,001 

—  10,000 

3 

I 

2 

10,001 

—  15,000 

8 

4 

4 

15,001 

—  20,000 

5 

i 

4 

20,001 

—  25,000 

2 

I 

i 

25,001 

—  30,000 

3 

2 

i 

30,001 

—  35,ooo 

2 

I 

i 

Over 

35,ooo 

I 

O 

i 

Total 

70 

29 

4i 

ioo   STATE;  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


TABLE    XXI.      CHICAGO    PRESBYTERY. 

Comparison  of  Benevolences  in  Churches  under  Pastors  aided 
by  Education  Board  of  the  Church  and  those 

not  aided. 
Fiscal  Year  1919-20. 


Benevolences 


Pastors 


Aided 


Actual  Median  of  Group=$i,237 
Actual  Median  of  Aided=  801 
Actual  Median  of  Unaided=  1,498 


Unaided 


o  — 

$  400 

16 

II 

5 

401  — 

800 

ii 

3 

8 

801  — 

1,200 

7 

2 

5 

1,201   — 

i,  600 

8 

4 

4 

1,601  — 

2,000 

3 

2 

i 

2,00  1  — 

6,000 

12 

4 

8 

6,001  — 

10,000 

6 

2 

4  - 

10,001  — 

14,000 

3 

I 

2 

14,001  — 

18,000 

3 

O 

3 

18,001  — 

22,000 

0 

o 

0 

22,001   — 

26,000 

i 

I 

o 

26,001  — 

30,000 

0 

0 

o 

Over 

30,000 

2 

o 

2 

Total 

72 

30 

42 

METHODS  OF  RECRUITING  OTHER  PROFESSIONS       IOI 
SUMMARY 

1.  The  states  and  the  nation  have  united  in  promoting 
vocational  education.     Teaching  is  a  vocation  that  re- 
quires more  preliminary  training  than  many  others,  hence 
it  imposes  a  greater  financial  burden  upon  those  who 
choose  to  enter  it.    State  control  of  public  education  gives 
a  peculiar  significance  to  the  profession  of  teaching.  Self 
interest  requires  the  state  to  protect  itself  by  securing  a 
sufficient  number  of  trained  teachers  through   offering 
such  inducements  as  will  meet  the  competitive  attractions 
of  other  vocations. 

2.  Earning  and  learning  are  coincident  in  many  indus- 
tries and  occupations.     Women  now  have  opportunities 
for  self-support  while  learning  so  well  paid  a  profession 
as  that  of  nursing.  ,~+ 

3.  West  Point  and  Annapolis  furnish  precedents  for 
the  use  of  public  money  in  the  support  of  students  who 
are  preparing  for  public  service.     State  schools  of  for- 
estry and  seamanship  are  examples  of  complete  state  sup- 
port for  prospective  workers. 

4.  Scholarships  in  the  leading     educational     institu- 
tions, both  public  and  private,  establish  the  value  of  assist- 
ing capable  or  needy  students  during  the  critical  period 
of  preparation. 

5.  The  extensive  service  of  Church  Boards  of  Educa- 
tion in  aiding  students  shows  the  economic  need  of  such 
assistance.    The  experience  of  these  boards  in  recruiting 
the  ministry  through  financial  asistance  suggests  a  similar 
policy  to  the  state  in  order  to  supply  the  lack  in  a  salaried 
profession  such  as  teaching. 

6.  The  success  of  aided  students  in  government  serv- 
ice, in  the  work  of  the  Church,  and  in  the  schools  at- 
tended, indicates  that  suitable  persons  can  be  selected  for 
such  aid,  if  the  funds  are  available. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF 

SUBSIDIES    FOR   TEACHER   TRAINING 

AS  AN  ELEMENT  IN  RECRUITING 

THE  PROFESSION 

The  serious  lack  of  trained  teachers  in  the  rural  schools 
of  the  country  has  been  shown  in  Chapter  II.  The  re- 
markable growth  of  the  high  school  enrollment  has 
created  a  demand  for  the  best  trained  teachers  produced 
by  the  professional  schools  at  such  attractive  salaries  that 
the  supply  for  the  elementary  schools,  always  insufficient, 
has  been  still  further  reduced.  To  meet  the  situation, 
states  and  cities  are  experimenting  in  subsidizing  re- 
cruits for  the  teaching  profession.  These  efforts  indicate 
that,  in  addition  to  the  movements  for  better  salaries,  for 
growth  in  service,  and  for  longer  and  better  training, 
there  is  a  financial  element  that  should  not  be  overlooked 
in  striving  to  make  the  profession  of  teaching  attractive 
and  preliminary  training  universal.  What  are  the  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of  state  subsidies  for  prospective 
teachers  ? 

A.      ADVANTAGES 

I.  Subsidies  will  Provide  Training. 
The  first  advantage  to  be  listed  is  that  a  subsidy  for 
teacher-training  strikes  at  the  fundamental  weakness  of 
the  public-school  system, — the  unprepared  teacher.  Those 
persons  who  are  selected  and  trained  at  state  expense 
are  obligated  to  render  service  for  a  period  of  years  in 
return  for  the  training  received.  Under  a  subsidy  sys- 
tem, the  state  would  be  impelled  to  provide  the  best  train- 
ing that  its  institutions  could  offer  and  by  a  continuous 
policy  of  subsidy,  the  number  of  trained  teachers  in  the 

103 


IO4     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

state  would  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  investment. 
Eventually,  the  number  to  be  trained  annually  would  be 
determined  by  the  growth  of  the  system  and  the  changes 
due  to  death  and  resignations.  To  the  extent  that  train- 
ing is  a  factor  in  prolonging  tenure,  the  number  required 
would  decrease  from  year  to  year. 

In  the  absence  of  a  system  of  subsidizing  teacher-train- 
ing, the  element  of  chance  has  determined  the  character 
of  the  instruction  received  by  thousands  of  children.  State 
subsidy  would  not  only  make  preliminary  training  certain 
but  it  would  place  the  burden  and  responsibility  for  such 
training  upon  the  state  rather  than  upon  the  individual. 

In  the  pioneer  days,  when  new  lands  were  plentiful 
and  the  opportunities  for  expansion  were  unlimited, 
many  conditions  were  neglected  or  ignored  by  state  gov- 
ernments that  need  attention  in  the  more  stable  situation 
of  the  twentieth  century.  Conservation  of  natural  re- 
sources, enrichment  of  country  life,  public  health,  and  a 
more  effective  system  of  public  education,  are  examples 
of  once  neglected  fields  of  state  endeavor  that  have  long 
deserved  the  emphasis  and  interest  that  they  are  now 
receiving.  The  local  and  individualistic  tendencies  in 
our  educational  system  are  rapidly  yielding  to  state  poli- 
cies which  distribute  the  financial  burdens  more  equitably 
and  secure  state-wide  benefits  which  were  formerly  pos- 
sible only  in  the  larger  communities. 

The  training  of  teachers  has  received  limited  state 
assistance  and  the  results  have  been  unjust  and  unsatis- 
factory. A  complete  system  of  state  subsidies  would  ul- 
timately place  a  competent  teacher  in  every  school.  Japan 
has  succeeded  in  supplying  subsidized  teachers  to  such  an 
extent  that  if  her  professional  standards  were  rigidly  ap- 
plied in  this  country  half  of  the  schools  would  be  closed 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES      105 

on  account  of  the  lack  of  teachers  possessing  the  re- 
quired training.1 

2.     Change  of  Public  Attitude  Toivard  Teaching. 

The  effect  of  subsidies  upon  the  public  attitude  toward 
the  necessity  of  training  is  one  of  its  most  desirable  fea- 
tures. States  would  not  train  teachers  at  public  expense 
unless  preparation  were  essential  to  successful  teaching. 
Such  a  policy  would  tend  to  modify  the  attitude  of  the 
public  toward  the  profession  because  the  selection  for 
training  at  state  expense  would  honor  the  individual  and 
emphasize  his  value  to  the  community  in  the  work  for 
which  he  is  being  prepared.  The  greater  the  amount  cf 
subsidy  the  keener  will  be  the  competition  and  the  more 
important  the  effect  upon  the  profession  through  improve- 
ment of  the  personnel.  Any  method  or  policy  that  will 
make  teaching  more  attractive  will  tend  to  have  a  bene- 
ficial effect  because  larger  numbers  will  apply  for  training 
and  a  better  selection  will  be  possible. 

So  much  has  been  said  in  recent  years  about  poor  sal- 
aries and  poor  teachers  that  the  effect  upon  the  public  has 
been  to  lower  the  standing  of  the  profession  as  a  pro- 
spective, life  work  and  to  lower  the  status  of  the  individual 
teacher  in  the  community.  If  the  state  adopts  a  policy 
that  makes  the  teacher  a  skilled  state  officer,  these  damag- 
ing attitudes  will  be  modified  to  the  advantage  of  the 
teacher,  the  public,  and  the  school. 

3.     Subsidies  will  Prolong  Tenure. 

Another  desirable  result  of  universal  training  secured 
by  state  subsidies,  would  be  the  effect  upon  tenure.  In 
the  rural  districts  where  training  is  most  deficient,  the 
teachers  shift  more  frequently  and  the  average  term  of 
experience  is  short.2  It  has  been  shown  in  the  Wisconsin 
survey  and  in  other  studies  that  training  prolongs  serv- 

1)  Cyclopedia   of  Education,   Paul  Monroe.   Article  on   Japan. 
2)  Chapter  II,  p.  41. 


IO6    STATE  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

ice.  "While  the  average  tenure  of  service  for  all  public 
school  teachers  is  between  four  and  five  years,  the  records 
of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Bridgewater,  Massa- 
chusetts, show  that  the  average  graduate  teaches  between 
eight  and  nine  years.  The  graduates  of  the  Warrensburg, 
Missouri,  State  Normal  School,  who  had  completed  only 
the. elementary  course,  were  found  in  1897-98  to  have  an 
average  term  of  service  of  about  six  years,  while  the 
graduates  of  the  advanced  course  had  taught  on  the  aver- 
age at  least  eight  years.  Graduates  of  the  Illinois  State 
Normal  University  numbering  2,451  between  1860  and 
1916  had  an  average  teaching-service  record  of  almost 
nine  years."3  The  fact  that  many  teachers  do  leave  the 
profession  after  so  short  an  experience  is  a  strong  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  subsidizing  preliminary  training.  A 
school  can  afford  to  lose  even  a  good  teacher  if  the  state 
has  another  well  trained  for  his  work,  and  the  trained 
teacher  will  stay  longer,  other  things  being  equal.  Train- 
ing makes  for  satisfaction  in  the  skillful  performance  of 
the  task,  and  the  state  receives  an  immediate  return  upon 
the  investment. 

4.     Selection  for  Subsidy  will  Secure  Better  Material  for 
the  Profession. 

The  selection  of  good  candidates  is  an  essential  element 
of  any  proper  plan  of  state  subsidies.  The  state  cannot 
afford  to  waste  money  on  inferior  candidates  and  the 
nature  of  the  teacher's  work  requires  ability  of  a  high 
order.  General  ability  as  shown  in  school  records,  as 
measured  by  standardized  tests,  or  as  demonstrated  in 
competitive  examinations,  is  a  foundation  upon  which  pro- 
fessional training  can  be  successfully  placed. 

Such  a  plan  of  selection,  made  possible  by  means  of 
sufficient  subsidies,  would  furnish  much  better  candidates 

3)  Commission  Series,  No.  3,  p.  11,  National  Education  Associa- 
tion. 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES      IO/ 

than  does  the  method  by  which  any  one  who  is  willing  to 
take  a  school  is  given  a  certificate.  It  is  better  than  to 
admit  to  a  teacher-training  institution  any  one  who  has  a 
prescribed  number  of  credits.  Any  selection  should  be 
provisional.  The  person  receiving  the  assistance  must 
continue  to  show  that  he  is  worthy  or  else  his  aid  should 
be  discontinued.  The  more  care  exercised  in  selection, 
the  less  frequent  will  be  the  necessity  for  such  discipline. 

The  extensive  use  of  intelligence  tests  in  the  army 
suggests  possibilities  for  the  use  of  similar  tests  whenever 
it  is  desired  to  determine  the  relative  abilities  of  indi- 
viduals. The  use  of  such  tests  as  a  supplement  to  col- 
lege-entrance examinations  and  in  vocational  placement 
indicates  the  possibility  of  making  tests  one  basis  for 
selecting  students  worthy  of  state  subsidy  in  teacher- 
training  institutions.  It  has  been  shown  that  normal 
school  students  are  somewhat  inferior  to  college  students 
as  judged  by  the  army  tests.4  If  tests  preliminary  to 
state  subsidy  be  given,  the  persons  whose  intelligence 
quotient  is  below  100  could  well  be  rejected. 

The  state  can  adopt  a  method  of  selection  similar  to  its 
plan  of  selecting  students  for  scholarships  in  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  and  not  make  entrance  to  a  teacher- 
training  institution  contingent  upon  failure  to  secure 
state  benefits  in  other  institutions  as  is  now  true  in  states 
like  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland.  To  make 
the  teaching  profession  as  attractive  as  any  other,  train- 
ing institutions  must  not  be  discriminated  against  in  this 
manner.  To  put  a  premium  on  training  in  certain  higher 
institutions  by  awarding  scholarships  to  the  honor  pupils 
in  high  schools  has  certainly  had  the  effect  of  leaving  the 
the  weaker  material  to  the  normal  schools.5  It  has  put 
the  stamp  of  social  approval  on  the  one  type  of  institution 

4)  Chapter  II,  Table  X. 

5)  Chapter   II,   Tables  X.    and  XI. 


108     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

and,  by  contrast,  has  made  it  less  desirable  to  go  to  the 
other. 

To  place  the  method  of  selection  on  the  basis  of  finan- 
cial need  alone  is  unfortunate.  An  indigent  classification 
is  socially  degrading  and  results  in  harm  instead  of  help. 
The  plan  of  aiding  "needy"  persons  in  Louisiana6  has 
not  succeeded  because  of  this  social  discrimination.  Other 
state  scholarship  appointments  are  not  made  upon  that 
basis.  Free  tuition  in  the  normal  schools  is  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  economic  condition  of  the  pupils. 
5.  Selection  for  Subsidy  Requires  Testing  of  High 
School  Seniors. 

State  subsidies  for  teacher-training  do  not  involve 
necessarily  the  luring  of  young  people  away  from  other 
essential  work.  The  large  numbers  who  are  now  gradu- 
ating from  high  school  can  supply  the  needs  of  all  the 
occupations  requiring  such  preliminary  secondary  train- 
ing. Furthermore  the  high  school  attendance  has  been 
rapidly  increasing  and  shows  every  sign  of  continuing  to 
increase  for  a  long  time  to  come.  It  is  important,  how- 
ever, to  discover  and  select  the  best  ability  available  for 
the  work  of  teaching. 

Methods  of  testing  and  discovering  such  ability  are 
now  so  refined  that  it  is  possible  to  determine  how  high 
school  pupils  rank  relatively  to  each  other.  Under  pre- 
vailing methods,  unfortunately,  many  of  those  possess- 
ing the  highest  ability  do  not  continue  their  education 
because  of  economic  conditions  or  for  other  reasons.  On 
the  other  hand  many  of  those  who  rank  among  the  lowest 
in  ability  do  enter  higher  institutions. 

Indiana  has  completed  a  state-wide  survey7  of  the  high 
school  seniors,  with  the  expressed  purpose  of  discovering 
and  possibly  of  aiding  the  superior  ability  which  might 

6)  Chapter  III,  p.  61. 

7)  Survey  of  High   School  Seniors  in  Indiana.   1920. 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES       IOO, 

otherwise  be  lost  to  the  state  because  of  lack  of  training. 
When  a  state  undertakes  to  subsidize  its  prospective 
teachers,  it  will  need  to  find  the  most  worthy  and  most 
capable  young  people  for  the  work,  and  such  surveys  will 
reveal  a  wealth  of  capable  material  that  will  give  a  su- 
perior group  as  candidates  for  the  teaching  profession. 

Diagram  No.  5  shows  some  of  the  significant  facts 
brought  out  by  the  survey  of  Indiana  high  school  seniors. 
From  22%  to  35%  of  the  best  grades  of  intelligence  were 
not  intending  to  take  additional  training.  Here  is  a 
wealth  of  material  from  the  subsidizing  of  which  the  state 
would  derive  benefits  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  cost. 
The  survey  also  shows  that  from  40%  to  60%  of  the 
lowest  grades  of  intelligence  among  high  school  seniors 
are  willing  to  be  trained,  but  these  are  doubtful  candi- 
dates for  state  assistance. 

6.     Subsidies  Tend  to  Equalize  Rural  and  Urban 
Opportunities. 

A  large  group  of  expert  employes  in  the  public  school 
service  would  insure  the  state's  interest  in  a  suitable  sal- 
ary schedule  and  eventually  in  a  pension  plan.  The  dif- 
ficulties of  professional  work  are  not  restricted  to  the 
cities  where  the  greatest  economic  rewards  are  received. 
The  problems  of  rural  education  are  even  more  difficult 
and  complex.  Nor  are  the  educational  needs  of  city  chil- 
dren greater  than  those  of  country  children.  Subsidies 
for  prospective  teachers  might  well  have  the  definite  pur- 
pose of  providing  competent  teachers  for  rural  children 
and  as  a  corollary  the  compensation  must  be  so  fixed  that 
the  rural  service  does  not  suffer  in  comparison  with  the 
urban. 

Under  present  conditions,  the  purpose  of  public  educa- 
tion may  be  nullified  by  the  local  authorities,  who  are 
willing  to  elect  immature  and  unqualified  teachers  because 


ITO     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OE  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


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ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES       III 

they  are  cheap  and  because  the  state  has  not  provided  a 
supply  possessing  superior  qualifications.  By  restricting 
teachers'  licenses  to  graduates  of  training  institutions, 
this  injustice  to  the  children  of  the  state  could  be  removed 
at  least  in  part.  But  subsidies  are  apparently  necessary 
to  insure  enrollment  in  the  training  institutions  that  will 
be  sufficient  to  provide  the  requisite  number  of  recruits 
each  year. 

Another  democratic  advantage  of  subsidized  teachers 
is  that  prepared  teachers,  on  account  of  the  improve- 
ment in  their  training,  will  tend  to  receive  salaries  more 
nearly  equal  to  those  of  their  supervisors.  This  is  the 
experience  of  other  countries  that  have  such  systems.8 
7.  General  Effect  of  Scholarships  has  been  Stimulating. 

The  value  of  competition  has  long  been  recognized  in 
education.  In  an  unpublished  report9  to  the  Regents  of 
the  University  of  New  York,  Ten  Eyck  states  that,  after 
visiting  many  of  the  New  York  state  scholars  in  the  in- 
stitutions where  they  were  studying  and  after  getting 
evidence  from  the  high  schools  of  the  state  from  which 
they  were  chosen,  the  unanimous  verdict  was  that  the 
effect  of  the  selection  of  state  scholars  by  their  relative 
standings  with  the  Board  of  Regents  was  very  invigor- 
ating. State  subsidies  have  usually  been  limited  in  num- 
ber and  the  element  of  competition  will  tend  to  make 
the  training  desirable.  It  may  indeed  come  about  that 
many  who  do  not  receive  state  assistance  will  enter  the 
training  institutions  and  complete  the  work  at  their  own 
expense.  This  is  true  now  in  Japan  and  in  France. 

8.     Prospective  Teachers  Deserve  State  Assistance. 

The  principle  of  assistance  for  teacher-training  is  al- 
ready established  by  law  and  custom.  The  amount  and 
necessity  of  additional  assistance  constitute  the  real  points 

8)  Chapter  III,  Germany. 

9)  On  File  State  Department  of  Education,  Albany,  N.  Y. 


U2   STATE;  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

at  issue.  Vocational  schools,  trade  schools,  and  colleges 
and  universities  maintained  by  the  state,  are  institutions 
through  which  the  state  subsidizes  a  great  many  occupa- 
tions and  professions.  Where  special  need  exists,  the 
state  is  justified  in  spending  more  money. 

Agricultural  schools  have  received  a  large  amount  of 
assistance  from  the  states  and  the  nation.  In  a  very  real 
sense  the  farmers  have  been  subsidized  and  little  objec- 
tion has  been  made  to  the  policy.  If  the  state  needs  for- 
esters, it  may  train  them  in  its  own  school  at  its  own 
expense,  as  does  Pennsylvania.  When  it  needs  police- 
men or  soldiers,  it  trains  them  and  remunerates  them 
during  the  training.  Such  remuneration  is  generally 
recognized  as  a  proper  exercise  of  state  power  and  re- 
sources. 

The  problems  of  the  school  compare  favorably  in  sig- 
nificance with  those  of  the  farm  or  the  forest.  Universal 
teacher-training  by  means  of  subsidies  is  justified  by  the 
difficulty  and  importance  to  both  state  and  nation,  of  the 
intricate  problems  which  the  teacher  must  help  to  solve. 
Illiteracy,  Americanization,  and  public  health  are  types  of 
national  problems  with  which  untrained  novices  are  un- 
prepared to  grapple.  With  trained  teachers  the  school 
can  aid  in  the  solution  of  such  problems. 

As  long  as  teaching  in  seeking  recruits  for  its  service 
must  enter  into  competition  with  other  occupations,  many 
of  which  require  less  training,  the  state  cannot  neglect  to 
offer  any  possible  inducements  in  the  way  of  assistance. 
Other  industries  and  occupations  have  successfully  used 
scholarships,  loans,  and  bonuses.  Our  states  should 
capitalize  the  experience  of  private  enterprise  in  securing 
skilled  workers. 

Teachers  deserve  state  assistance  in  their  preparation 
because  the  salaries  have  been  too  low  to  justify  extensive 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES      113 

preparation  at  private  expense.  It  becomes  a  state  obli- 
gation to  protect  the  children  from  incompetence  in  this 
vital  relationship  in  the  public  school  system. 

Those  states  and  nations  that  have  adopted  plans  by 
which  prospective  teachers  have  been  aided,  have  not 
abandoned  the  practice  on  account  of  their  experience,  al- 
though many  of  them  have  been  unable  to  train  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  teachers  because  of  military  burdens 
or  for  other  financial  reasons.  Public  sentiment  in  Amer- 
ica is  beginning  to  assert  itself  in  this  field  as  evidenced 
by  pending  legislation.10 

It  is  not  surprising  that  strong  and  vigorous  objection 
has  been  made  to  a  policy  that  seems  to  be  so  radically 
different  from  customary  procedure  as  does  that  of  state 
subsidies  for  prospective  teachers.  New  departures  in 
education  have  won  their  way  slowly  and  safely  in  the 
face  of  such  opposition.  State  systems  of  free  schools 
were  bitterly  opposed  and  long  delayed.  Compulsory  edu- 
cation, free  high  schools,  higher  education  for  women, 
continuation  schools,  and  even  normal  schools  were  ques- 
tions for  serious  debate.  It  is,  therefore,  pertinent  to  ask 
what  the  objections  to  the  policy  of  state  subsidies  for 
teachers  are,  and  to  determine  their  validity. 

B.      DISADVANTAGES 

I.     Subsidies  zvill  Select  the  Weak  and  Dependent. 

It  has  been  charged  that  a  system  of  scholarships  or 
subsidies  would  tend  to  select  those  who  will  always  be 
mediocre  in  ambition  and  ability.  The  records  of  the 
Rhodes  scholars  or  of  any  group  of  selected  students  cited 
in  this  chapter  show  that  this  is  not  true  as  a  general  as- 
sertion. The  record  of  scholarship  holders  in  one  of  the 
better  known  small  colleges  of  the  country,  Washington 
and  Jefferson  College,  will  show  how  successful  that 

10)  See   Appendix   B. 


1 14     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

institution   has   been   in    selecting   proper   material    for 
these  honors. 

TABLE  XXII.        RECORD     OF      STUDENTS      RECEIVING      SCHOLARSHIPS      IN 

WASHINGTON    AND    JEFFERSON    COLLEGE,    WASHINGTON, 

PENNSYLVANIA,  FALL  SEMESTER,  IQ20-2I.11 

Total  Enrollment  for  the  Semester 414 

Total  number  of  Scholarships  granted 165 

Average  grade  of  all  Students 2.82 

Students  holding  Scholarships,   above  average...  125  or  75.7% 

Students  holding  Scholarships,  below  average ...  40  or  24.3  % 

At  Syracuse  University  a  record  kept  for  six  years 
shows  how  the  students  aided  by  the  Board  of  Education 
of  the  Methodist  Church  compared  with  other  students  as 
measured  by  the  election  on  the  basis  of  scholarship  only 
to  the  honor  society,  Phi  Beta  Kappa.  These  students 
aided  by  the  board  were  not  chosen  for  aid  on  account 
of  scholarship  alone,  but  for  other  reasons  as  well.  The 
record  shows  that  the  aided  students  made  a  slightly  bet- 
ter record  than  the  others.  While  2.4  per  cent,  is  not  a 
large  difference,  it  is  clear  that  the  selected  group  was  not 
inferior  to  the  others. 

TABLE  XXIII.   COMPARISON  OF  RECORD  OF  STUDENTS  AT  SYRACUSE  UNI- 
VERSITY, AIDED  BY  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD  OF  METHODIST 
CHURCH,      WITH      THOSE      NOT      AIDED,      MEASURED 
BY    ELECTION    TO    PHI    BETA    KAPPA.!2 

Unaiddd  Students Aided  Students 

Year      Eligible       Elected  %          Eligible    Elected          % 


1915 

188 

32 

18 

15 

4 

27 

1916 

218 

32 

14 

3i 

3 

10 

1917 

258 

4i 

15 

21 

I 

5 

1918 

189 

39 

20 

19 

4 

21 

1919 

197 

32 

16 

IO 

3 

30 

1920 

268 

40 

16 

27 

8 

29 

Total 

1,318 

216 

16.3 

123 

23 

18.7 

11)  Data  furnished  by  Dean  R.   B.  English. 

12)  Data  furnished  by  Prof.   R.   A.   Porter. 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  Of  SUBSIDIES       115 

In  New  York  state  the  law  permits  the  appointment  of 
750  persons  each  year  to  scholarships  in  higher  institu- 
tions. These  scholarships  provide  $100.00  a  year  for  four 
years.  Owing  to  withdrawals  on  account  of  military 
service  and  for  other  reasons,  the  group  for  1914  con- 
tained 863  individuals.  Of  these,  eight  or  less  than  one 
per  cent,  were  dropped  on  account  of  unsatisfactory 
work.  Of  those  appointed  in  1919  none  was  dropped  on 
account  of  poor  scholarship.13  About  fifty  of  these  New 
York  state  scholars  chose  the  Albany  State  Teachers  Col- 
lege, thus  obtaining  in  addition  to  free  tuition,  $100.00 
toward  living  expenses. 

The  following  table  shows  the  comparison  between  the 
success  of  the  two  groups  of  students  as  measured  by  the 
initial  salaries  of  inexperienced  teachers  so  far  as  the 
facts  were  known.  Again  it  appears  that  the  students  re- 
ceiving aid  were  capable  of  securing  practically  the  same 
salaries  as  the  others.  Of  course,  some  other  factors 
enter  into  the  amount  of  salary  received.  The  type  of 
position,  the  location  with  reference  to  the  home  of  the 
teacher,  as  well  as  the  age,  appearance,  and  personality 
of  the  individual, — all  have  an  influence  in  the  salary  ac- 
cepted and  they  are  quite  independent  of  the  question  of 
aid  received.  Table  XXIV  shows  that  the  scholars  made 
a  better  record  in  their  studies  than  the  others  in  their 
class. 

2.     Other  Occupations  are  not  Subsidised. 

It  is  pertinent  to  ask  why  teachers  should  receive  state 
assistance  for  their  preparation  when  many  other  occupa- 
tions and  professions  are  not  aided  from  the  public  treas- 
ury. 

State  subsidies  for  teacher-training  are  more  necessary 
now  than  formerly  because  of  a  combination  of  circum- 

13)  Data    furnished    by    Charles    F.    Wheelock,    Assistant    Com- 
missioner  for   Secondary   Education,   New   York    State. 


Il6     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 


TA.BLE  xxiv.    RECORDS  FROM  NEW  YORK  STATE  COLLEGE  FOR 

TEACHERS.  14 

A.    Success  of  State  Scholarship  Students  Compared  with  Other 
Students  Without  Teaching  Experience  on  Basis  of  Initial  Salary. 


Year 

1919 

1920 

Initial 
Salaries 

State 
Scholar 
Grad. 

Other 
Grad. 

State 
Scholar 
Grad. 

Other 
Grad. 

$   650  —  $   800 
801  —       950 
951  —    1,000 
1,101  —    1,250 
1,251  —    1,400 
1,401  —    1,550 
i,55i  —    1,700 
1,701  —    1,850 
1,851  —    2,000 

ii 

21 

7 
o 
i 

0 
0 

o 
o 

17 
35 

7 

2 
2 
O 
I 
0 
0 

0 
0 

18 
10 

5 

0 
2 
0 
0 

o 

2 

21 
22 

7 
2 

3 

2 

I 

Total 

40 

64 

35 

60 

Actual  Median 
Average 

$850 
$885 

$850 
$879 

$I,IOO 

$1,170 

$1,200 
$1,221 

Records   Unknown 

3 

53 

13 

40 

B.     Scholarship  Record  of  Class  of  1917. 
Average  of   State   Scholars    (46   Students)  =80.55% 
Average  of  other  Students    (66   Students)  =78.41% 
Average   of    whole    Class    (112    Students)  =79.29% 

4  State  Scholars  dropped  out  of  class  since  1913. 
48  other  members  of  class  dropped  out  since  1913. 


14)  Data   furnished  by  Dean   H.   H.   Horner. 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES       117 

stances.  As  a  result  of  the  war,  people  appreciate  more 
keenly  the  importance  of  the  schools,  the  serious  nature 
of  the  lack  of  trained  teachers,  and  the  necessity  of  a  bet- 
ter preparation  for  the  difficult  problems  that  confront 
the  nation  in  the  future.  To  secure  a  supply  of  trained 
teachers  is  more  difficult  because  of  the  enlarged  oppor- 
tunities for  women  in  other  occupations  and  on  account 
of  the  industrial  development.  In  order  to  promote  the 
public  welfare  a  state  may  exercise  its  police  powers  in  a 
very  broad  way  at  any  time  of  stress  or  strain.  If  a 
crisis  were  to  occur  in  public  health  extending  over  a 
period  of  years,  it  is  not  inconceivable  that  it  would  be 
the  duty  of  the  state  to  subsidize  the  training  of  phy- 
sicians and  nurses. 

The  schools  are  the  agencies  for  the  state  which  reach 
the  future  generation  while  it  is  in  the  formative  period. 
It  is  self-defense  and  preparedness  for  the  future  that 
justifies  state  control  of  the  schools.  The  state's  interest 
in  the  schools  is  impersonal  and  impartial.  Through  this 
interest  helpless  children  are  protected  from  the  greed 
of  parents  and  promoters.  Ultimate  responsibility  for  the 
school  system  has  thus  been  placed  upon  the  state.  So- 
ciety has  not  given  the  state  such  exclusive  control  of 
other  occupations  and  professions. 

Facts  have  been  cited  to  show  that  more  than  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  teachers  are  not  worthy  to  be  called  profes- 
sional on  the  basis  of  their  training.  Such  an  unstable 
and  unorganized  group  cannot  hope,  unaided,  to  lift  it- 
self bodily  to  a  higher  professional  plane  by  a  declaration 
of  principles  or  by  the  cultivation  of  professional  atti- 
tudes. If  barriers  are  to  be  erected  to  keep  the  untrained 
out  of  the  profession,  the  state  must  do  it  by  law,  but  at 
the  same  time,  it  must  make  it  possible  for  a  sufficient 
number  of  trained  men  and  women  to  replace  those  who 


Il8     STATE  MAINTENANCE  Of  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

are  debarred.  Subsidies,  training,  and  better  living  con- 
ditions are  all  factors  that  will  contribute  to  the  supply 
of  teachers,  if  properly  influenced  by  state  action. 
3.  Subsidy  is  not  Justified  Because  of  Short  Tetiure. 
State  subsidy  must  be  guarded  by  obligations  on  the  part 
of  those  aided.  Laws  in  several  states  require  a  pledge 
of  two  years'  teaching  in  return  for  free  tuition.  As  this 
aid  is  increased,  the  service  required  must  be  increased. 
In  some  countries  this  service  is  as  long  as  six,  seven,  or 
ten  years.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  additional  training  in 
combination  with  proper  salary  and  pension  laws  will 
extend  the  term  of  service  so  that  short  tenure  will  cease 
to  be  a  problem.  But  even  if  the  term  of  service  is  to  re- 
main relatively  brief,  there  is  all  the  more  reason  why  the 
state  should  train  the  teachers  in  order  that  teachers  may 
make  the  most  of  their  efforts  during  the  period  that  they 
serve. 

4.  State  Subsidy  means  Paternalism. 

All  the  endeavors  of  the  state  to  promote  the  common 
good  and  to  provide  for  the  general  welfare  meet  the 
same  objection.  The  same  argument  would  demand  that 
the  parent  should  do  as  he  pleases  with  reference  to  the 
education  of  his  children.  Representative  government 
has  become  so  well  established  that  it  is  folly  to  oppose 
efforts  to  improve  its  efficiency  in  its  distinctive  fields  of 
activity. 

State  subsidy  for  prospective  teachers  has  been  used  by 
all  types  of  governments  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  The 
conditions  in  the  schools  justify  its  use  there  without  in- 
volving any  necessary  extension  of  the  policy  to  other  de- 
partments of  work. 

5.  State  Subsidy  Encourages  Extravagance. 
Most  of  the  scholarship  plans  in  America  do  not  aim  to 

supply  all  of  the  student's  needs.     This  allows  opporttt- 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES      1 19 

nity  for  self  'help  and  for  self  direction  and  control.  To 
turn  over  to  the  individual  student  a  large  sum  of  money 
even  on  the  installment  plan  would  doubtless  invite  ex- 
travagance and  lead  to  the  wrong  attitude  toward  state 
assistance.  Effective  plans  for  subsidy  require  the  student 
to  give  bond  or  notes  for  the  amount  given  by  the  state, 
so  that  the  state's  interests  are  preserved.  These  notes 
must  be  paid  by  efficient  service  or  if  the  individual  fails 
to  teach  the  required  number  of  years,  the  notes  are  col- 
lected. 

6.     Subsidies  Help  in  Foreign  Countries  Only. 

Some  who  are  opposed  to  state  grants  for  teachers  de- 
clare that  the  reason  subsidies  have  aided  the  profession 
abroad  is  that  society  is  stratified  there  and  that  subsidy 
affords  a  great  opportunity  for  those  low  in  the  social 
scale  to  elevate  themselves  into  positions  of  relative  honor 
and  responsibility.  No  doubt  the  teaching  profession  has 
been  recruited  to  some  extent  in  foreign  countries  on 
this  basis.  But  essentially  the  same  situation  exists  in 
society  in  this  country  except  the  stratification  is  econo- 
mic rather  than  social.  The  democratic  effect  of  a  state 
subsidy  that  seeks  out  ability  in  the  lower  social  groups 
and  conserves  it  for  the  benefit  of  all  concerned  is  just  as 
desirable  in  America  as  in  any  other  country. 

Studies  of  the  teaching  population  show  that  many  of 
our  prospective  teachers  come  from  homes  the  economic 
and  social  standards  of  which  are  not  high.15  Many  are 
only  one  or  two  generations  removed  from  the  immigrant 
class  and  training  at  state  expense  is  the  only  method 
of  preventing  such  persons  from  entering  the  schools 
without  some  training  that  will  tend  to  compensate  for  the 
lack  of  home  advantages. 


15)  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching  Population,  Coffman. 


I2O     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

7.     Other  Remedies  will  Provide  Trained  Teachers. 

Before  a  new  policy  involving  large  expenditures  of 
public  money  is  adopted,  it  is  necessary  to  determine 
whether  any  modification  of  existing  methods  will  pro- 
duce the  desired  results.  Many  investigations  in  typical 
sections  of  the  country  clearly  show  that  the  proportion 
of  trained  teachers  is  shamefully  low.  What  are  the  ele- 
ments in  educational  law  and  administration  that  could 
contribute  to  the  remedy  of  this  national  evil? 

Since  more  training  is  needed,  it  seems  obvious  that 
the  laws  should  be  so  drafted  that  standard  minimum 
preparation  in  a  training  institution  would  be  required 
for  certification.  Such  legislation  would  close  at  least 
half  of  the  schools,  if  it  were  applied  suddenly.  To  re- 
quire two  years  of  professional  training  beyond  the  high 
school  would  prevent  many  persons  from  entering  the 
profession  because  of  economic  conditions,  although  their 
natural  ability  might  be  of  a  high  order.  The  cost  of 
training  at  an  institution,  approximately  $400.00  a  year, 
would  cause  these  prospective  teachers  to  enter  other 
occupations  as  soon  as  they  left  high  school. 

Nearly  300,000  teachers  are  required  in  the  rural 
schools.  It  is  doubtful  whether  these  schools  could  be 
maintained  if  the  typical  family  as  described  by  Coffman16 
were  prevented  from  furnishing  the  necessary  teachers. 
To  avoid  this  calamity,  higher  standards  of  training  must 
be  reached  gradually  and  the  legitimate  function  of  state 
subsidy  as  a  means  to  this  end  becomes  apparent. 

Again  since  teachers  cannot  afford  training,  the  only 
way  to  offer  additional  financial  aid  is  to  suggest  that 
under  present  practice  the  salaries  be  increased  so  that 
teachers  may  secure  training.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
salaries,  especially  in  the  rural  districts,  can  be  made  high 

16)  The  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching  Population,  Coffraan. 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES      121 

enough  to  induce  a  sufficient  number  of  candidates  to  get 
the  training  before  entering  the  profession. 

Salaries  and  training  ought  to  be  definitely  related.  Ex- 
tensive preparation  should  receive  its  reward  in  the  salary 
schedule  on  account  of  the  superior  service  rendered,  re- 
gardless of  the  source  of  the  funds  which  made  the  prep- 
aration possible.  In  other  occupations  high  salaries  are 
not  paid  to  some  workers  in  order  to  influence  others  to 
secure  training.  On  the  contrary,  skill,  experience,  and 
ability  receive  their  due  reward. 

The  time  when  the  prospective  teacher  needs  help 
occurs  when  the  high  school  course  is  finished  and  voca- 
tional choice  must  be  made.  Here  is  a  potential  worker 
who  may  earn  in  various  occupations  $50.00  or  $60.00 
per  month  without  any  further  investment  of  time  or 
money  in  preparation.  Economic  pressure  in  the  home 
makes  the  individual  feel  that  he  must  contribute  to  the 
extent  at  least  of  supporting  himself.  The  delayed  re- 
turns of  a  salary  schedule  which  would  not  begin  to  be 
felt  for  approximately  three  years  (two  spent  in  training 
and  one  in  teaching)  do  not  compare  in  drawing  power 
with  the  immediate  rewards  of  the  other  vocations. 

State  scholarships  for  teacher  training  offered  at  this 
strategic  moment  of  decision  will  aid  greatly  in  neutral- 
izing the  attractions  of  the  other  occupations.  They  will 
bring  to  the  teacher-training  institutions  a  group  of  well 
qualified  candidates  who  would  otherwise  be  lost  to  the 
profession. 

The  effect  of  such  aid  would  not  be  to  lower  the  sal- 
aries of  the  teaching  service.  The  improved  character 
of  the  profession  would  justify  higher  salaries  rather 
than  lower.  The  question  of  the  source  of  the  funds  used 
in  preparation  is  never  asked  of  teachers  in  fixing  the 
salary  schedule.  The  aid  received  in  free  tuition  by  those 


122     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

teachers  who  have  attended  state  normal  schools  has  not 
resulted  in  any  difference  in  their  salaries  as  compared 
with  those  of  teachers  who  have  paid  their  own  tuition 
for  training  of  equal  quality. 

Those  states  that  have  already  adopted  forms  of  state 
subsidy  do  not  discriminate  against  the  beneficiaries  of 
such  aid.  In  fact,  the  tendency  is  to  pay  them  more  on 
account  of  their  superior  efficiency.  The  Maine  law 
offers  a  25%  bonus  to  the  rural  teachers  who  take  the 
summer  course  where  all  expenses  are  paid  by  the  state. 

The  salaries  paid  in  Germany  before  the  war  were  on  a 
higher  level  relatively  than  were  the  salaries  in  America.17 
If  subsidies  are  the  cause  of  low  salaries,  why  is  it  that, 
in  the  United  States  where  the  subsidy  plan  is  almost 
negligible  in  its  influence  in  the  teaching  profession,  the 
cry  for  higher  salaries  is  most  insistent?  Poor  prepara- 
tion and  unsatisfactory  methods  of  certification  are  two 
of  the  reasons  for  the  salary  situation. 

The  public  schools  need  the  united  assistance  of  all  the 
factors  which  are  now  at  work  for  their  betterment  and 
in  addition  the  help  of  the  state  and  nation  in  providing 
institutional  preparation  for  the  teachers  before  they  be- 
gin their  professional  career. 

8.     Cost  of  Subsidising  Teacher  Training. 

The  chief  objection  to  the  policy  of  state  assistance  for 
prospective  teachers  is  that  it  will  cost  too  much.  The 
question  of  cost  is  a  relative  matter.  Its  justification  de- 
pends upon  the  value  and  necessity  of  the  thing  pur- 
chased, as  well  as  upon  the  ability  of  the  purchaser  to 
make  payment.  Previous  discussion  has  shown  the  great 
need  of  better  prepared  teachers  in  many  parts  of  the 
country.  The  policy  of  non-interference  in  striving  to 
meet  this  need  has  proved  to  be  a  failure.  Every  incom- 

17)  Prussian   Elementary    Schools,   Alexander. 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES       12^ 

petent  teacher  is  evidence  of  that  failure.  So  far  as  the 
children  are*  concerned,  the  success  of  the  entire  school 
system  depends  upon  the  competence  of  the  teachers. 
Good  teachers  in  some  favored  communities  will  have 
little  influence  in  those  less  fortunate  localities  where  the 
untrained  teachers  represent  the  state's  lack  of  interest 
in  equality  of  educational  opportunity.  It  is  a  natural 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  parent  to  have  the  best  teachers 
that  can  be  employed  for  his  own  children.  There  can  be 
no  denial  of  the  vital  importance  of  a  well  prepared 
teacher  in  every  school,  even  in  the  remotest  rural  school. 
The  parent  must  look  to  the  state  to  protect  him  from 
failure  and  inefficiency  in  this  matter. 

The  problem  of  trained  teachers  is  too  large  for  each 
community  to  attempt  to  solve  alone.  Its  fiscal  impli- 
cations involve  not  only  the  state  but  the  nation.  Al- 
ready Federal  aid  is  being  used  by  the  states  in  the  prep- 
aration of  teachers  under  the  Smith-Hughes  act.  Our 
national  wealth  is  five  times  as  great  as  in  1890,  although 
population  has  not  gained  ioo%.18  Because  of  late 
entrance  into  the  world  war  and  because  of  our  vast 
natural  resources,  our  national  debt  is  not  so  great  as 
are  those  of  the  other  great  nations.  If  any  nation  can 
afford  the  expense  of  training  its  teachers  with  public 
funds  that  nation  is  the  United  States. 

Money  spent  in  making  a  school  system  effective 
should  not  be  looked  upon  as  an  extravagance.  Ignorance, 
illiteracy,  and  poverty  are  found  together.  Mexico,  Italy, 
Spain,  India,  and  Russia  are  examples  of  countries 
where  public  education  is  not  available  for  the  great 
majority  of  the  common  people.  Contrast  these  countries 
with  Switzerland,  Norway,  Holland,  or  Scotland. 


18)  Chapter   II.    Table   VII. 


124     STATE  MAINTENANCE  Of  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

Our  immigration  laws  have  permitted  large  groups  of 
aliens  to  come  into  the  country,  bringing  the  Customs  and 
standards  of  the  Old  World  with  them.  Within  a  few 
years  the  menace  of  such  unassimilated  groups  has  been 
clearly  recognized.  The  responsibility  for  the  American- 
ization of  the  immigrant  and  his  children  has  been  placed 
upon  the  educational  system.  So  serious  a  burden  should 
not  be  placed  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  unprepared  and 
inexperienced  young  women  who  now  form  the  bulk  of 
the  teaching  population.  The  interests  of  the  state  are 
too  vital  to  raise  the  the  question  of  expense. 

Vast  sums  of  money  have  been  expended  by  states  for 
good  roads,  for  public  health,  and  for  agriculture.  All 
are  worthy  objects  of  state  assistance  but  no  more  neces- 
sary than  are  good  schools.  To  insure  teacher-training 
means  to  protect  children  from  incompetent  direction 
and  to  aid  the  prospective  teacher  when  he  needs  it  most. 
Relatively  few  teachers  remain  in  the  service  long  enough 
to  earn  the  benefits  of  a  pension  law,  but  every  subsidized 
teacher  gains  advantages  for  himself  which  can  be 
shared  by  every  community  served  by  a  teacher  thus 
aided. 

Approximately  100,000  new  teachers  are  required  in 
the  public  schools  every  year.  To  give  these  teachers 
two  years  of  professional  training  beyond  the  standard 
high  school  course  will  cost  a  large  sum.  It  is  not  essen- 
tial to  pay  all  the  expenses  of  these  students.  Most  young 
people  have  some  resources  of  their  own  and  the  honor 
of  being  selected  by  the  state  will  stimulate  the  individ- 
ual to  provide  a  part  of  the  cost.  Again  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  subsidize  all  prospective  teachers.  Many  persons 
who  are  able  to  pay  their  own  expenses  would  still  be 
permitted  to  do  so.  It  is  probable  that  many  of  those 
entering  into  competition  for  the  scholarships  would  con- 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  SUBSIDIES       125 

sider  the  training  so  valuable  that  they  would  be  stimu- 
lated to  go  on  at  their  own  expense. 

Recent  legislation  in  America,  seems  to  regard  $303.00 
as  the  proper  amount  of  annual  subsidy  required  in  ad- 
dition to  free  tuition.19  If  60,000  persons  were  selected 
annually  for  such  subsidy  the  cost  for  the  two  groups 
would  be  $36,000,000.  This  is  approximately  four  per 
cent,  of  the  annual  expenditure  for  public  education  in  the 
United  States,  which  is  now  about  $1,000,000,000.  In 
1920  the  government  spent  almost  four  times  that  total 
amount  on  its  military  enterprises.20  A  wise  use  of 
public  money  would  recognize  in  education  a  valuable 
means  of  building  up  the  national  defense. 

The  advantages  of  universal  training  for  teachers  far 
outweigh  the  disadvantages  that  have  been  alleged  by 
those  who  oppose  state  subsidy.  Experience  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  such  a  plan  would  remove  most  of  the  dif- 
ficulties. American  ingenuity  can  solve  the  problems 
involved  in  the  operation  of  state  subsidy  for  prospective 
teachers.  All  other  plans  in  use  have  not  succeeded  in 
placing  a  trained  teacher  in  every  school.  This  ideal  may 
be  more  nearly  achieved  by  a  wise  use  of  additional  aid 
for  the  preparation  of  teachers. 

SUMMARY. 

1.  State  subsidy  for  prospective  teachers  extends  the 
policy  of  assistance  already  adopted  by  central  authority 
and  proposes  to  attack  vigorously  the  prevailing  lack  of 
sufficient  preparation  among  teachers.     By  making  the 
profession  of  teaching  more  attractive,  the  state  would 
counteract  much  of  the  disparaging  attitude  which  the 
public  now  exhibits  toward  teaching. 

2.  Trained  teachers  are  more  valuable  than  incom- 
petent recruits  because  they  are  likely  to  teach  longer  as 

19)  Connecticut,    Illinois,    Delaware.      See   Appendix   B. 

20)  Rosa,  Chart  in  Survey,  January  22,  1921,  p.  600. 


126     STATE  MAINTENANCE  Of  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

well  as  more  efficiently.  Subsidy  will  attract  a  sufficient 
number  of  candidates  to  allow  selection  of  those  who 
possess  the  best  ability.  State  assistance  will  make  it  pos- 
sible to  prolong  the  training  of  many  high  school  grad- 
uates whose  ability  should  be  utilized  by  the  state  but 
whose  economic  conditions  now  compel  them  to  give  up 
further  study. 

3.  Aid  in  the  form  of  scholarships,  offered  in  other 
fields  of  activity  by  educational  institutions,  has  proved 
to  be  stimulating.     Teachers  deserve  state  assistance  as 
much  as  farmers,  foresters,  or  sailors.     States  are  ex- 
tending their  scholarship  plans  as  a  result  of  their  ex- 
perience in  using  them,  rather  than  abandoning  them. 

4.  Students  selected  for  assistance  in  other  fields  have 
proved  worthy  of  such  aid.     They  have  been  successful 
in  school  and  in  their  chosen  work.    The  state's  need  for 
teachers  which  results  from  ks  control  of  public  educa- 
tion, justifies  assistance  by  the  state  without  necessarily 
extending  the  policy  to  other  occupations. 

5.  The  objections  of  extravagance  and  short  tenure 
are  easily  met  by  the  provisions  of  the  law  requiring!  a 
pledge  of  service  and  limiting  the  use  of  the  money  to 
definite  purposes. 

6.  The  opportunity  for  worthy  students  to  improve 
their  social  status  through  state  subsidy  is  just  as  im- 
portant in  the  United  States  as  in  the  foreign  countries 
where  subsidies  for  teachers  have  been  in  use  for  many 
years. 

7.  Other  methods  of  securing  trained  teachers  have 
not  succeeded.    State  and  national  subsidies  for  prospect- 
ive teachers  will  supplement  and  reinforce  the  other  plans. 
America  can  afford  the  expense  and  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  justify  the  investment. 


CHAPTER  VI 
CONCLUSIONS 

The  evidence  presented  shows  that  the  shortage  of  well 
trained  teachers  still  continues  in  spite  of  the  growth  in 
numbers  of  normal  schools  and  in  the  enrollment  of  col- 
leges and  universities. 

Other  occupations  and  professions  have  been  more  at- 
tractive, because  the  time  for  training  was  shorter  or  the 
cost  of  preparation  was  less,  or  the  prospective  rewards 
were  greater.  With  the  increasing  educational  demands 
and  the  trend  toward  longer  courses  of  training  for  all 
grades  of  the  teaching  service,  the  cost  of  preparation 
has  materially  increased. 

A  majority  of  those  who  desire  to  enter  the  teaching 
profession  do  so  by  means  of  a  system  of  certification 
that  permits  them  to  avoid  the  costs  of  preparation.  More- 
over, the  inadequate  salaries'  paid  in  the  rural  districts 
do  not  secure  professionally  trained  teachers.  Those 
persons  who  are  able  to  afford  the  time  and  money  re- 
quired for  standard  preparation  usually  seek  employment 
in  the  towns  and  cities.  This  situation  has  resulted  in  a 
transient,  incompetent,  and  immature  body  of  teachers  in 
the  rural  schools. 

The  differences  existing  between  rural  and  urban  edu- 
cational opportunities  are  intolerable  in  a  nation  that  is 
devoted  to  the  principles  of  equity  and  justice.  The 
problems  of  the  rural  teacher  require  at  least  as  much 
skill  and  preparation  for  their  solution  as  do  those  of  the 
city  teacher  who  has  in  addition  to  a  somewhat  simpler 
problem  the  advantage  of  expert  supervision.  The  state 
owes  as  much  to  the  rural  child  as  it  does  to  the  city  child. 

127 


128     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

Those  rural  communities  that  have  recognized  the  dif- 
ference in  living  conditions  and  have  been  financially  able, 
have  paid  well  trained  teachers  as  much  as  or  more  than 
such  teachers  would  receive  in  the  towns  and  cities  in 
order  to  compete  for  their  services. 

There  are  inequalities  in  the  cost  of  preparation  that 
should  be  reduced  by  a  well  planned  system  of  state  assist- 
ance, (i)  Several  states  and  countries  have  made  pro- 
vision for  transportation  charges,  thus  encouraging  a 
wider  range  in  the  selection  of  students.  (2)  It  would 
seem  equally  justifiable  to  make  up  from  public  funds  the 
excess  cost  of  institutional  life  over  home  life,  inasmuch  as 
the  former  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the 
training  process.  Under  present  conditions  students  liv- 
ing in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  professional  school  en- 
joy a  great  economic  advantage  over  those  who  come  from 
the  state  at  large,  but  the  state  loses  the  advantages  of 
having  them  live  a  regulated  institutional  life  during  the 
period  of  training.  It  should  be  possible  with  liberal 
state  assistance  to  require  all  students  to  live  within  the 
institution  and  thus  get  the  complete  benefit  of  its 
training. 

The  teaching  profession  continues  to  draw  many  of  its 
recruits  from  the  humbler  homes.  It  has  been  the  means 
by  which  capable  and  ambitious  young  people  have  tried 
to  improve  their  social  status.  However  they  are  often 
unable  to  pay  for  the  professional  training  that  is  neces- 
sary for  efficiency.  By  state  subsidy  it  is  proposed  to 
help  such  persons  to  secure  adequate  training  not  only 
because  the  students  need  aid  but  because  a  trained  teach- 
er in  every  school  is  the  goal  that  the  state  should  strive 
to  attain. 

The  foundations  of  a  real  profession  of  teaching  must 
rest  ultimately  upon  a  broad  preliminary  training  such  as 


CONCLUSIONS  129 

prevails  in  medicine,  in  law,  and  in  the  ministry.  Equality 
of  educational  opportunity  for  the  children  requires  that 
the  state  should  work  toward  this  desirable  goal  by  pro- 
viding teachers  with  preliminary  training  equal  to  a  mini- 
mum standard  throughout  the  state.  To  accomplish  this 
purpose,  an  aggressive  policy  must  be  adopted.  Merely 
to  recognize  and  state  the  need  will  not  modify  the  unjust 
conditions  which  now  prevail. 

Other  occupations,  such  as  telegraphy  and  nursing, 
offer  financial  inducements  to  those  willing  to  undertake 
training  in  order  to  create  a  body  of  skilled  workers. 
Many  vocations  permit  advancement  within  the  service, 
without  specific  preliminary  training,  and  thus  offer  op- 
portunities for  the  worker  to  earn  a  living  wage  while  he 
prepares  for  promotion.  Neither  of  these  policies  is 
characteristic  of  the  teaching  profession.  Little  financial 
assistance  has  been  offered,  although  the  work  requires 
a  high  degree  of  skill  and  a  broad  preparation  before  it 
can  be  successfully  begun.  The  function  of  state  sub- 
sidies for  prospective  teachers  is  to  recognize  these  dif- 
ferences and  to  make  the  teaching  service  as  attractive 
as  is  any  other  work. 

Another  purpose  of  state  subsidy  is  to  counteract  a 
certain  amount  of  social  stigma  or  prejudice  that  has 
attached  to  the  profession  of  teaching,  with  the  effect 
that  many  possible  recruits  have  been  prevented  from  en- 
tering the  work.  State  recognition  of  the  importance  of 
the  teacher  as  expressed  in  material  aid  will  dignify  and 
honor  the  profession  and  the  competition  for  the  oppor- 
tunities offered,  will  tend  to  make  the  occupation  more 
attractive. 

Scholarships  in  our  colleges  and  universities  have  suc- 
ceeded in  selecting  persons  of  ability.  Many  of  these 
students  could  not  have  received  the  advantages  of  higher 


130     STATE  MAINTENANCE  Of  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

education  without  this  assistance.  The  precedent  of  us- 
ing public  money  for  such  a  purpose  is  well  established 
at  West  Point  and  Annapolis  and  in  many  of  our  tax  sup- 
ported colleges  and  universities  through  the  provision  of 
scholarships.  The  need  for  trained  teachers  clearly  jus- 
tifies and  demands  the  extension  of  this  policy  to  the  field 
of  teacher-preparation  which  has  been  hitherto  so  much 
neglected. 

Additional  experience  may  discover  better  methods  of 
selection  than  any  yet  devised,  but  school  records,  com- 
petitive examinations,  and  intelligence  tests  afford  the 
best  means  at  present.  It  is  not  maintained  that  these 
methods  will  in  every  case  select  those  who  will  make 
good  teachers.  The  training  institutions  must  eliminate 
those  individuals  who  lack  the  traits  of  character  and  per- 
sonality that  are  required  in  the  profession. 

Teachers  in  many  foreign  countries  and  in  a  few 
states  in  the  United  States  are  receiving  financial  assist- 
ance toward  adequate  preparation.  The  fact  that 
America  has  done  less  in  this  direction  than  any  other 
great  nation  and  at  the  same  time  possesses  a  teaching 
population  containing  so  large  a  proportion  of  incom- 
petent teachers,  plainly  suggests  the  possibility  of  great 
improvement  through  such  a  policy.  The  evidence  pre- 
sented justifies  the  conclusion  that  state  subsidies  will  not 
destroy  any  desirable  characteristics  of  the  public  schools. 
The  sole  aim  of  such  a  policy  is  to  provide  an  adequate 
supply  of  trained  teachers. 

The  magnitude  of  this  undertaking  is  recognized  in 
the  proposed  Sterling-Towner  Bill,  which,  accepting  the 
precedent  established  in  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  plans 
for  the  cooperation  of  the  nation  with  the  states  in  pre- 
paring teachers  for  their  work.  The  state  and  nation 
should  share  this  responsibility  and  burden  because  their 


CONCLUSIONS  131 

interests  in  public  education  are  mutual  and  co-extensive. 
It  is  impossible  for  any  state  to  solve  this  problem  alone. 
If  one  state  succeeds  in  training  a  large  group  of  teach- 
ers, another  adjoining  state  by  means  of  a  fortunate  sal- 
ary schedule  may  attract  the  teachers  from  her  neighbor 
and  rob  her  of  her  vested  interest  in  the  training  pro- 
vided. So  long  as  there  is  an  insufficient  supply,  there 
will  be  competition  for  those  that  are  trained  and  the 
poorer  districts  are  limited  to  those  that  are  left. 

It  is  a  national  problem  not  alone  because  it  is  common 
to  all  the  states,  but  because  ignorance,  illiteracy,  and  in- 
competency  are  a  menace  to  the  nation's  progress.  Hence 
it  is  legitimate  to  secure  the  financial  assistance  of  the 
national  treasury  in  an  enterprise  that  promises  so  much 
for  the  improvement  of  the  teaching  population. 

The  growth  of  national  wealth  and  resources  in  the 
United  States  is  unparalleled  in  the  modern  world.  There 
are  sources  of  taxation  in  every  state  that  are  as  yet  un- 
tapped. The  question  is  not  so  much  whether  the  states 
and  nation  can  afford  the  cost.  Rather  the  question 
should  be  asked  whether  they  can  afford  to  postpone  any 
longer  so  vital  an  investment  in  teacher  preparation.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  an  annual  expenditure  by  all  the 
states  of  four  per  cent,  of  the  total  now  spent  for  public 
education  would  solve  this  problem  within  ten  years.  A 
group  of  more  than  66,000  teachers  could  be  prepared  an- 
nually by  means  of  an  expenditure  of  $40,000,000  in  an- 
nual scholarships  of  $300.00  each.  Seven  states  have 
already  made  a  beginning  in  this  direction  and  several 
others  have  legislation  now  pending.  It  is  a  policy  that 
must  be  adopted  upon  the  initiative  of  each  state  separ- 
ately. Hence  the  time  required  for  the  policy  to  become 
effective  is  essentially  unpredictable. 


132     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

In  the  meantime  every  possible  agency  that  contributes 
to  the  improvement  of  teachers  must  be  fully  utilized. 
Teachers  in  service  must  be  encouraged  to  go  to  sum- 
mer schools,  or  to  go  to  school  on  leave  of  absence.  Sal- 
aries and  training  should  be  more  nearly  adequate  and 
more  closely  related.  In  short  the  teaching  profession 
must  be  recruited  not  only  through  the  character  of  its 
training,  but  through  the  attractiveness  of  its  working 
conditions  as  well  as  through  its  opportunities  for  service. 

SUGGESTED   TERMS    Of    A    SUBSIDY    LAW. 

Scholarships  shall  be  established  worth  at  least  $300.00 
annually,  in  addition  to  free  tuition,  to  be  devoted  to  the 
maintenance  of  students  in  the  teacher-training  institu- 
tions of  the  state  for  two  years  of  professional  work. 
These  scholarships  shall  be  payable  to  the  training  insti- 
tutions in  semi-annual  installments  upon  the  certificate  of 
the  president  of  the  institution  that  the  conditions  of  the 
law  have  been  fulfilled  by  the  scholarship  holders. 

Candidates  for  scholarships  shall  be  graduates  of  four- 
year  high  school  courses  or  the  equivalent,  as  determined 
by  the  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction.  Each 
must  present  a  certificate  of  good  health  signed  by  a 
reputable  physician,  and  be  a  resident  of  -the  state  for 
one  year  and  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  They  shall 
be  selected  by  competitive  examination  under  regulations 
adopted  by  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

Scholarship  holders  shall  pledge  themselves  to  teach 
the  next  four  years  after  completing  the  course  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  state  or  return  a  proportionate  part 
of  the  money  granted  by  the  state  for  the  years  of  service 
omitted.  They  shall  pledge  themselves  to  complete  the 
course  in  the  training  school. 

For  the  proper  performance  of  the  pledge,  the  student 
shall  give  bond  signed  by  a  responsible  property  holder 


CONCLUSIONS  133 

covering  the  entire  sum  of  $600.00.  The  bond  shall  be 
filed  in  the  offices  of  the  State  Department  of  Public  In- 
struction. 

Ill  health  and  failure  to  carry  the  work  of  the  training 
school  successfully,  will  exempt  the  student  from  his 
pledge  and  the  bondsman  from  liability. 

The  state  should  guarantee  the  teacher  a  salary  equal 
to  that  paid  for  the  same  grade  of  preparation  in  the  best 
schools  of  the  state. 


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Brandon,  Edgar  E.,  Latin-American  Universities  and  Special 
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reau of  Census,  1920. 

Cloyd,  David  E.,  Modern  Education  in  Europe  and  the  Orient, 
Macmillan,  1917. 

Coffman,  Lotus  D.,  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching  Popula- 
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135 


136    STATE  MAINTENANCE  Of  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

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London,  1919. 

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World's  Almanac. 


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APPENDIX  B 
PENDING  LEGISLATION 

CONNECTICUT — 1921 

An  Act  Providing  for  Trained  Teachers. 

Section  1066,  of  the  General  Statutes  is  amended  to 
read  as  follows :  The  State  Board  of  Education  may  at  all 
times  maintain,  in  any  of  the  normal  schools,  one  student, 
selected  on  the  basis  of  scholarship  and  general  fitness, 
from  each  town  in  the  state,  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  town  school  committee  or  board  of  school  visitors 
of  such  town;  and  for  students  admitted  to  said  schools 
under  the  provisions  of  this  section  living  expenses,  not  to 
exceed  three  hundred  dollars  for  each  pupil  in  any  one 
year,  shall  be  provided  by  said  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion free  of  charge.  Every  person  entering  a  normal 
school  under  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  enter 
into  an  agreement  with  the  State  Board  of  Education  to 
remain  at  the  normal  school  for  two  years,  unless  in  case 
of  ill  health  or  dismissal  by  the  school  authorities,  and 
to  teach  in  one  of  the  towns  whose  grand  list  shall  not 
exceed  two  million  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  as  last 
determined  by  the  State  Board  of  Equalization,  for  a 
period  of  three  years  after  graduation  unless  excused  by 
the  State  Board  of  Education. 

Statement. 

The  purpose  of  this  act,  which  changes  the  grant  for 
living  expenses  from  $150.00  to  $300.00  a  year  is  to  en- 
courage more  persons  to  enter  the  state  normal  schools, 
and  also  to  insure  greater  numbers  of  trained  teachers  in 
the  schools  of  the  small  towns  of  the  state. 

139 


140     STATE  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 
DELAWARE 1921 

An  act  to  establish  Free  Scholarships  at  Delaware  Col- 
lege for  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  public  schools 
of  Delaware  and  making  an  appropriation  therefor. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  the  State  of  Delaware  in  General  Assembly  met : 

Section  i.  That  the  Trustees  of  Delaware  College 
shall  establish  in. the  Women's  College,  affiliated  with 
Delaware  College,  fifty  (50)  free  scholarships  affording 
the  holders  thereof  certain  tuition,  board  and  lodging 
during  a  two  (2)  years'  course  of  training  for  teaching 
in  the  free  public  schools  of  this  State. 

Section  2.  That  the  State  Board  of  Education  shall 
award  said  scholarships;  and  all  applications  therefor 
shall  be  filed  with  it. 

Section  3.  Every  applicant,  upon  filing  her  applica- 
tion, must  comply  with  the  following  conditions: 

1 i )  She  shall  be  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age  on  or 
before  the  first  day  of  December  of  the  year  in  which  she 
makes  application. 

(2)  She  shall  be  a  graduate  of  a  standard  four-year 
high  school. 

(3)  She  shall  file  a  certificate  of  good  health  by  a 
reputable  physician. 

(4)  Her  application  must  bear  the  approval  of  her 
Superintendent  of  Schools  and  of  the  State  Commissioner 
of  Education. 

(5)  She  shall  sign  a  bond,  provided  by  the     State 
Board  of  Education,    to    complete    the    course    at    the 
Women's  College  to  the  best  of  her  ability  and  upon  the 
completion  of  the  course  to  teach  three  (3)  years  in  the 
public  elementary  schools  of  Delaware. 

Section  4.  The  Department  of  Education  of  Delaware 
College  shall  renew  or  terminate  each  scholarship  upon 


APPENDIXES  141 

the  record  of  the  holder  at  the  end  of  the  first  year's 
course. 

Section  5.  The  sum  of  Fifteen  Thousand  Dollars 
($15,000)  is  appropriated  annually  for  said  scholarships 
out  of  any  money  in  the  treasury  and  not  otherwise  ap- 
propriated ;  said  sum  shall  be  paid  by  the  State  Treasurer 
to  the  Treasurer  of  the  Trustees  of  Delaware  College  as 
follows:  One-half  thereof  on  the  first  day  of  October 
and  the  other  half  thereof  on  the  first  day  of  February 
in  each  and  every  collegiate  year;  provided  that  on  said 
dates  said  Treasurer  of  the  College  shall  certify  that 
fifty  (50)  persons,  awarded  scholarships,  are  enrolled  and 
pursuing  the  prescribed  course  of  training;  for  each 
scholarship  Three  Hundred  Dollars  ($300)  shall  be  an- 
nually paid  and  if  less  than  fifty  (50)  persons  are  enrolled, 
on  any  date  of  payment,  there  shall  be  a  corresponding 
abatement  in  the  amount  paid. 

THE  PROPOSED  NORMAL  SCHOOL  SCHOLARSHIP  LAW  OF 
ILLINOIS — 1921 

A  Bill  for  an  Act  to  Provide  Scholarships  for  Students 

Attending  the  State  Supported  Institutions     for     the 

Training  of  Teachers. 

Section  i.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  people  of  the  State  of 
Illinois  represented  in  the  General  Assembly:  That  the 
State  of  Illinois  hereby  agrees  within  the  limits  of  the 
annual  appropriations  provided  in  accordance  with  this 
Act  to  cooperate  with  the  school  districts  in  the  State  in 
providing  two-year  scholarships  for  students  in  the  state- 
supported  institutions  for  the  training  of  teachers. 

Section  2.  Said  scholarships  shall  be  for  $300  per 
year  payable  one-half  from  the  District  Treasury  in  Sep- 
tember, the  other  half  from  the  state  appropriation  in 
January  of  the  two  years  for  which  the  scholarship  shall 
run. 


142     STATIC  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

Section  3.  Said  scholarships  shall  be  awarded  between 
May  i  and  August  15.  The  school  board  awarding  the 
scholarship  shall  without  delay  notify  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  of  its  act,  who  shall  register  the 
scholarships  in  the  order  that  the  notifications  are  re- 
ceived. Within  ten  days  after  August  15  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  shall  approve  the  scholar- 
ships awarded  according  to  law  in  the  order  of  their 
registration  except  that  no  county  may  be  deprived  of  its 
minimum  quota,  one  scholarship  for  each  fifty  teachers 
or  major  fraction  of  this  number.  No  more  than  1000 
scholarships  may  be  approved  in  any  year.  Scholarships 
reported  beyond  this  limit  shall  not  receive  state  aid. 

Section  4.  Said  scholarships  may  be  awarded  by 
school  boards  to  residents  of  the  school  district,  who  are 
graduates  of  recognized  four-year  high  schools,  who  are 
of  good  moral  character  and  who  meet  the  scholastic  and 
physical  standards  prescribed  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction.  Any  district  may  issue  at  least  one 
scholarship  in  each  biennium.  If  two  or  more  scholar- 
ships are  issued  in  any  district,  the  total  amount  paid  for 
scholarships  in  any  year  shall  not  exceed  five  per  cent,  of 
the  annual  expenditure  for  teachers'  salaries  in  that  dis- 
trict. 

Section  5.  The  person  receiving  the  scholarship  shall 
sign  a  pledge  to  attend  a  state  school  for  the  training  of 
teachers  in  Illinois  for  two  school  years  and  continue  his 
studies  until  graduation,  and  after  his  graduation,  to 
teach  two  years  in  the  district  furnishing  the  aid  and  two 
additional  years  in  the  public  schools  of  Illinois,  at  the 
salary  usually  paid  where  he  is  employed  to  teachers  of 
like  qualifications,  grade,  preparation,  and  experience. 

In  guaranty  of  this  pledge  the  person  receiving  the 
scholarship  shall  sign  four  promissory  notes  with  security 


APPENDIXES  143 

approved  by  the  district  school  board.  Said  notes  shall 
be  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  each,  payable  one  at 
the  expiration  of  each  year  which  the  maker  is  pledged  to 
teach,  and  shall  bear  interest  after  maturity  at  the  rate  of 
six  per  cent,  per  annum.  Two  of  th?se  notes  shall  be  made 
payable  to  the  school  district  issuing  the  scholarship,  two 
to  the  Department  of  Registration  and  Education.  One 
of  these  notes  shall  be  cancelled  without  payment  of  the 
principal  sum  at  the  end  of  each  year  taught  in  accordance 
with  the  pledge.  The  four  years  of  teaching  for  which 
notes  are  cancelled  must  be  completed  within  six  years 
after  graduation,  unless  the  time  is  extended  by  the  Su- 
perintendent of  Public  Instruction. 

Section  6.  Boards  of  Education  and  Boards  of  Direc- 
tors are  hereby  authorized  to  pay  out  of  their  fund  for 
operating  expenses  the  amount  required  for  the  scholar- 
ships issued  by  them. 

Section  7.  On  or  before  December  15,  the  Director 
of  Registration  and  Education  shall  report  to  the  Auditor 
of  Public  Accounts  the  names  of  all  students  holding 
valid  approved  district  scholarships  who  are  attending  the 
several  state  teacher-training  institutions,  and  the  Audi- 
tor is  hereby  instructed  to  issue  not  later  than  January 
15,  a  warrant  of  $150  in  favor  of  each  student  reported, 
said  warrant  to  be  delivered  to  the  student  upon  his 
filing  the  promissory  note  requested  by  this  Act. 

Section  8.  The  school  board  issuing  a  scholarship  may 
release  the  student  who  received  it  from  his  obligation  to 
teach  in  that  district.  The  obligation  to  teach  four  years 
in  the  state  remains  in  force.  The  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  shall  have  power  to  release  any  stu- 
dent from  his  obligation  to  teach  or  to  pay  the  promissory 
notes  he  has  made,  if  the  school  board  which  issued  the 
scholarship  certifies  that  his  physical  or  mental  condition 


144   STATE:  MAINTENANCE  OF  TEACHERS  IN  TRAINING 

is  such  as  to  disqualify  him  for  teaching  as  required  in 
this  Act.  The  death  of  a  student  shall  release  the  sureties 
upon  his  promissory  notes  given  in  accordance  with  this 
Act. 

Section  9.  To  provide  funds  for  carrying  out  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act  the  sum  of  $150,000  is  hereby  appro- 
priated to  the  Department  of  Registration  and  Education 
for  the  year  1921-22,  $300,000  for  the  year  1922-23,  or 
such  part  of  these  sums  as  may  be  needed. 

Section  10.  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
is  hereby  authorized  to  make  such  rules  as  are  necessary 
to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  Act. 


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